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地理空间分析

全面的地理空间分析和地图可视化工具

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GeoMaster

Comprehensive geospatial science skill covering GIS, remote sensing, spatial analysis, and ML for Earth observation across 70+ topics with 500+ code examples in 8 programming languages.

Installation

# Core Python stack (conda recommended)
conda install -c conda-forge gdal rasterio fiona shapely pyproj geopandas

# Remote sensing & ML
uv pip install rsgislib torchgeo earthengine-api
uv pip install scikit-learn xgboost torch-geometric

# Network & visualization
uv pip install osmnx networkx folium keplergl
uv pip install cartopy contextily mapclassify

# Big data & cloud
uv pip install xarray rioxarray dask-geopandas
uv pip install pystac-client planetary-computer

# Point clouds
uv pip install laspy pylas open3d pdal

# Databases
conda install -c conda-forge postgis spatialite

Quick Start

NDVI from Sentinel-2

import rasterio
import numpy as np

with rasterio.open('sentinel2.tif') as src:
    red = src.read(4).astype(float)   # B04
    nir = src.read(8).astype(float)   # B08
    ndvi = (nir - red) / (nir + red + 1e-8)
    ndvi = np.nan_to_num(ndvi, nan=0)

    profile = src.profile
    profile.update(count=1, dtype=rasterio.float32)

    with rasterio.open('ndvi.tif', 'w', **profile) as dst:
        dst.write(ndvi.astype(rasterio.float32), 1)

Spatial Analysis with GeoPandas

import geopandas as gpd

# Load and ensure same CRS
zones = gpd.read_file('zones.geojson')
points = gpd.read_file('points.geojson')

if zones.crs != points.crs:
    points = points.to_crs(zones.crs)

# Spatial join and statistics
joined = gpd.sjoin(points, zones, how='inner', predicate='within')
stats = joined.groupby('zone_id').agg({
    'value': ['count', 'mean', 'std', 'min', 'max']
}).round(2)

Google Earth Engine Time Series

import ee
import pandas as pd

ee.Initialize(project='your-project')
roi = ee.Geometry.Point([-122.4, 37.7]).buffer(10000)

s2 = (ee.ImageCollection('COPERNICUS/S2_SR_HARMONIZED')
      .filterBounds(roi)
      .filterDate('2020-01-01', '2023-12-31')
      .filter(ee.Filter.lt('CLOUDY_PIXEL_PERCENTAGE', 20)))

def add_ndvi(img):
    return img.addBands(img.normalizedDifference(['B8', 'B4']).rename('NDVI'))

s2_ndvi = s2.map(add_ndvi)

def extract_series(image):
    stats = image.reduceRegion(ee.Reducer.mean(), roi.centroid(), scale=10, maxPixels=1e9)
    return ee.Feature(None, {'date': image.date().format('YYYY-MM-dd'), 'ndvi': stats.get('NDVI')})

series = s2_ndvi.map(extract_series).getInfo()
df = pd.DataFrame([f['properties'] for f in series['features']])
df['date'] = pd.to_datetime(df['date'])

Core Concepts

Data Types

TypeExamplesLibraries
VectorShapefile, GeoJSON, GeoPackageGeoPandas, Fiona, GDAL
RasterGeoTIFF, NetCDF, COGRasterio, Xarray, GDAL
Point CloudLAS, LAZLaspy, PDAL, Open3D

Coordinate Systems

  • EPSG:4326 (WGS 84) - Geographic, lat/lon, use for storage
  • EPSG:3857 (Web Mercator) - Web maps only (don’t use for area/distance!)
  • EPSG:326xx/327xx (UTM) - Metric calculations, <1% distortion per zone
  • Use gdf.estimate_utm_crs() for automatic UTM detection
# Always check CRS before operations
assert gdf1.crs == gdf2.crs, "CRS mismatch!"

# For area/distance calculations, use projected CRS
gdf_metric = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())
area_sqm = gdf_metric.geometry.area

OGC Standards

  • WMS: Web Map Service - raster maps
  • WFS: Web Feature Service - vector data
  • WCS: Web Coverage Service - raster coverage
  • STAC: Spatiotemporal Asset Catalog - modern metadata

Common Operations

Spectral Indices

def calculate_indices(image_path):
    """NDVI, EVI, SAVI, NDWI from Sentinel-2."""
    with rasterio.open(image_path) as src:
        B02, B03, B04, B08, B11 = [src.read(i).astype(float) for i in [1,2,3,4,5]]

    ndvi = (B08 - B04) / (B08 + B04 + 1e-8)
    evi = 2.5 * (B08 - B04) / (B08 + 6*B04 - 7.5*B02 + 1)
    savi = ((B08 - B04) / (B08 + B04 + 0.5)) * 1.5
    ndwi = (B03 - B08) / (B03 + B08 + 1e-8)

    return {'NDVI': ndvi, 'EVI': evi, 'SAVI': savi, 'NDWI': ndwi}

Vector Operations

# Buffer (use projected CRS!)
gdf_proj = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())
gdf['buffer_1km'] = gdf_proj.geometry.buffer(1000)

# Spatial relationships
intersects = gdf[gdf.geometry.intersects(other_geometry)]
contains = gdf[gdf.geometry.contains(point_geometry)]

# Geometric operations
gdf['centroid'] = gdf.geometry.centroid
gdf['simplified'] = gdf.geometry.simplify(tolerance=0.001)

# Overlay operations
intersection = gpd.overlay(gdf1, gdf2, how='intersection')
union = gpd.overlay(gdf1, gdf2, how='union')

Terrain Analysis

def terrain_metrics(dem_path):
    """Calculate slope, aspect, hillshade from DEM."""
    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src:
        dem = src.read(1)

    dy, dx = np.gradient(dem)
    slope = np.arctan(np.sqrt(dx**2 + dy**2)) * 180 / np.pi
    aspect = (90 - np.arctan2(-dy, dx) * 180 / np.pi) % 360

    # Hillshade
    az_rad, alt_rad = np.radians(315), np.radians(45)
    hillshade = (np.sin(alt_rad) * np.sin(np.radians(slope)) +
                 np.cos(alt_rad) * np.cos(np.radians(slope)) *
                 np.cos(np.radians(aspect) - az_rad))

    return slope, aspect, hillshade

Network Analysis

import osmnx as ox
import networkx as nx

# Download and analyze street network
G = ox.graph_from_place('San Francisco, CA', network_type='drive')
G = ox.add_edge_speeds(G).add_edge_travel_times(G)

# Shortest path
orig = ox.distance.nearest_nodes(G, -122.4, 37.7)
dest = ox.distance.nearest_nodes(G, -122.3, 37.8)
route = nx.shortest_path(G, orig, dest, weight='travel_time')

Image Classification

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
import rasterio
from rasterio.features import rasterize

def classify_imagery(raster_path, training_gdf, output_path):
    """Train RF and classify imagery."""
    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
        image = src.read()
        profile = src.profile
        transform = src.transform

    # Extract training data
    X_train, y_train = [], []
    for _, row in training_gdf.iterrows():
        mask = rasterize([(row.geometry, 1)],
                        out_shape=(profile['height'], profile['width']),
                        transform=transform, fill=0, dtype=np.uint8)
        pixels = image[:, mask > 0].T
        X_train.extend(pixels)
        y_train.extend([row['class_id']] * len(pixels))

    # Train and predict
    rf = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, max_depth=20, n_jobs=-1)
    rf.fit(X_train, y_train)

    prediction = rf.predict(image.reshape(image.shape[0], -1).T)
    prediction = prediction.reshape(profile['height'], profile['width'])

    profile.update(dtype=rasterio.uint8, count=1)
    with rasterio.open(output_path, 'w', **profile) as dst:
        dst.write(prediction.astype(rasterio.uint8), 1)

    return rf

Modern Cloud-Native Workflows

STAC + Planetary Computer

import pystac_client
import planetary_computer
import odc.stac

# Search Sentinel-2 via STAC
catalog = pystac_client.Client.open(
    "https://planetarycomputer.microsoft.com/api/stac/v1",
    modifier=planetary_computer.sign_inplace,
)

search = catalog.search(
    collections=["sentinel-2-l2a"],
    bbox=[-122.5, 37.7, -122.3, 37.9],
    datetime="2023-01-01/2023-12-31",
    query={"eo:cloud_cover": {"lt": 20}},
)

# Load as xarray (cloud-native!)
data = odc.stac.load(
    list(search.get_items())[:5],
    bands=["B02", "B03", "B04", "B08"],
    crs="EPSG:32610",
    resolution=10,
)

# Calculate NDVI on xarray
ndvi = (data.B08 - data.B04) / (data.B08 + data.B04)

Cloud-Optimized GeoTIFF (COG)

import rasterio
from rasterio.session import AWSSession

# Read COG directly from cloud (partial reads)
session = AWSSession(aws_access_key_id=..., aws_secret_access_key=...)
with rasterio.open('s3://bucket/path.tif', session=session) as src:
    # Read only window of interest
    window = ((1000, 2000), (1000, 2000))
    subset = src.read(1, window=window)

# Write COG
with rasterio.open('output.tif', 'w', **profile,
                   tiled=True, blockxsize=256, blockysize=256,
                   compress='DEFLATE', predictor=2) as dst:
    dst.write(data)

# Validate COG
from rio_cogeo.cogeo import cog_validate
cog_validate('output.tif')

Performance Tips

# 1. Spatial indexing (10-100x faster queries)
gdf.sindex  # Auto-created by GeoPandas

# 2. Chunk large rasters
with rasterio.open('large.tif') as src:
    for i, window in src.block_windows(1):
        block = src.read(1, window=window)

# 3. Dask for big data
import dask.array as da
dask_array = da.from_rasterio('large.tif', chunks=(1, 1024, 1024))

# 4. Use Arrow for I/O
gdf.to_file('output.gpkg', use_arrow=True)

# 5. GDAL caching
from osgeo import gdal
gdal.SetCacheMax(2**30)  # 1GB cache

# 6. Parallel processing
rf = RandomForestClassifier(n_jobs=-1)  # All cores

Best Practices

  1. Always check CRS before spatial operations
  2. Use projected CRS for area/distance calculations
  3. Validate geometries: gdf = gdf[gdf.is_valid]
  4. Handle missing data: gdf['geometry'] = gdf['geometry'].fillna(None)
  5. Use efficient formats: GeoPackage > Shapefile, Parquet for large data
  6. Apply cloud masking to optical imagery
  7. Preserve lineage for reproducible research
  8. Use appropriate resolution for your analysis scale

Detailed Documentation

GeoMaster covers everything from basic GIS operations to advanced remote sensing and machine learning.

Reference: Advanced Gis

Advanced GIS Topics

Advanced spatial analysis techniques: 3D GIS, spatiotemporal analysis, topology, and network analysis.

3D GIS

3D Vector Operations

import geopandas as gpd
from shapely.geometry import Point, LineString, Polygon
import pyproj
import numpy as np

# Create 3D geometries (with Z coordinate)
point_3d = Point(0, 0, 100)  # x, y, elevation
line_3d = LineString([(0, 0, 0), (100, 100, 50)])

# Load 3D data
gdf_3d = gpd.read_file('buildings_3d.geojson')

# Access Z coordinates
gdf_3d['height'] = gdf_3d.geometry.apply(lambda g: g.coords[0][2] if g.has_z else None)

# 3D buffer (cylinder)
def buffer_3d(point, radius, height):
    """Create a 3D cylindrical buffer."""
    base = Point(point.x, point.y).buffer(radius)
    # Extrude to 3D (conceptual)
    return base, point.z, point.z + height

# 3D distance (Euclidean in 3D space)
def distance_3d(point1, point2):
    """Calculate 3D Euclidean distance."""
    dx = point2.x - point1.x
    dy = point2.y - point1.y
    dz = point2.z - point1.z
    return np.sqrt(dx**2 + dy**2 + dz**2)

3D Raster Analysis

import rasterio
import numpy as np

# Voxel-based analysis
def voxel_analysis(dem_path, dsm_path):
    """Analyze volume between DEM and DSM."""
    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src_dem:
        dem = src_dem.read(1)
        transform = src_dem.transform

    with rasterio.open(dsm_path) as src_dsm:
        dsm = src_dsm.read(1)

    # Height difference
    height = dsm - dem

    # Volume calculation
    pixel_area = transform[0] * transform[4]  # Usually negative
    volume = np.sum(height[height > 0]) * abs(pixel_area)

    # Volume per height class
    height_bins = [0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100]
    volume_by_class = {}

    for i in range(len(height_bins) - 1):
        mask = (height >= height_bins[i]) & (height < height_bins[i + 1])
        volume_by_class[f'{height_bins[i]}-{height_bins[i+1]}m'] = \
            np.sum(height[mask]) * abs(pixel_area)

    return volume, volume_by_class

Viewshed Analysis

def viewshed(dem, observer_x, observer_y, observer_height=1.7, max_distance=5000):
    """
    Calculate viewshed using line-of-sight algorithm.
    """

    # Convert observer to raster coordinates
    observer_row = int((observer_y - dem_origin_y) / cell_size)
    observer_col = int((observer_x - dem_origin_x) / cell_size)

    rows, cols = dem.shape
    viewshed = np.zeros_like(dem, dtype=bool)

    observer_z = dem[observer_row, observer_col] + observer_height

    # For each direction
    for angle in np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 360):
        # Cast ray
        for r in range(1, int(max_distance / cell_size)):
            row = observer_row + int(r * np.sin(angle))
            col = observer_col + int(r * np.cos(angle))

            if row < 0 or row >= rows or col < 0 or col >= cols:
                break

            target_z = dem[row, col]

            # Line-of-sight calculation
            dist = r * cell_size
            line_height = observer_z + (target_z - observer_z) * (dist / max_distance)

            if target_z > line_height:
                viewshed[row, col] = False
            else:
                viewshed[row, col] = True

    return viewshed

Spatiotemporal Analysis

Trajectory Analysis

import movingpandas as mpd
import geopandas as gpd
import pandas as pd

# Create trajectory from point data
gdf = gpd.read_file('gps_points.gpkg')

# Convert to trajectory
traj_collection = mpd.TrajectoryCollection(gdf, 'track_id', t='timestamp')

# Split trajectories (e.g., by time gap)
traj_collection = mpd.SplitByObservationGap(traj_collection, gap=pd.Timedelta('1 hour'))

# Trajectory statistics
for traj in traj_collection:
    print(f"Trajectory {traj.id}:")
    print(f"  Length: {traj.get_length() / 1000:.2f} km")
    print(f"  Duration: {traj.get_duration()}")
    print(f"  Speed: {traj.get_speed() * 3.6:.2f} km/h")

# Stop detection
stops = mpd.stop_detection(
    traj_collection,
    max_diameter=100,  # meters
    min_duration=pd.Timedelta('5 minutes')
)

# Generalization (simplify trajectories)
traj_generalized = mpd.DouglasPeuckerGeneralizer(traj_collection, tolerance=10).generalize()

# Split by stop
traj_moving, stops = mpd.StopSplitter(traj_collection).split()

Space-Time Cube

def create_space_time_cube(gdf, time_column='timestamp', grid_size=100, time_step='1H'):
    """
    Create a 3D space-time cube for hotspot analysis.
    """

    # 1. Spatial binning
    gdf['x_bin'] = (gdf.geometry.x // grid_size).astype(int)
    gdf['y_bin'] = (gdf.geometry.y // grid_size).astype(int)

    # 2. Temporal binning
    gdf['t_bin'] = gdf[time_column].dt.floor(time_step)

    # 3. Create cube (x, y, time)
    cube = gdf.groupby(['x_bin', 'y_bin', 't_bin']).size().unstack(fill_value=0)

    return cube

def emerging_hot_spot_analysis(cube, k=8):
    """
    Emerging Hot Spot Analysis (as implemented in ArcGIS).
    Simplified version using Getis-Ord Gi* statistic.
    """
    from esda.getisord import G_Local

    # Calculate Gi* statistic for each time step
    hotspots = {}
    for timestep in cube.columns:
        data = cube[timestep].values.reshape(-1, 1)
        g_local = G_Local(data, k=k)
        hotspots[timestep] = g_local.p_sim < 0.05  # Significant hotspots

    return hotspots

Topology

Topological Relationships

from shapely.geometry import Point, LineString, Polygon
from shapely.ops import unary_union

# Planar graph
def build_planar_graph(lines_gdf):
    """Build a planar graph from line features."""
    import networkx as nx

    G = nx.Graph()

    # Add nodes at intersections
    for i, line1 in lines_gdf.iterrows():
        for j, line2 in lines_gdf.iterrows():
            if i < j:
                if line1.geometry.intersects(line2.geometry):
                    intersection = line1.geometry.intersection(line2.geometry)
                    G.add_node((intersection.x, intersection.y))

    # Add edges
    for _, line in lines_gdf.iterrows():
        coords = list(line.geometry.coords)
        G.add_edge(coords[0], coords[-1],
                   weight=line.geometry.length,
                   geometry=line.geometry)

    return G

# Topology validation
def validate_topology(gdf):
    """Check for topological errors."""

    errors = []

    # 1. Check for gaps
    if gdf.geom_type.iloc[0] == 'Polygon':
        dissolved = unary_union(gdf.geometry)
        for i, geom in enumerate(gdf.geometry):
            if not geom.touches(dissolved - geom):
                errors.append(f"Gap detected at feature {i}")

    # 2. Check for overlaps
    for i, geom1 in enumerate(gdf.geometry):
        for j, geom2 in enumerate(gdf.geometry):
            if i < j and geom1.overlaps(geom2):
                errors.append(f"Overlap between features {i} and {j}")

    # 3. Check for self-intersections
    for i, geom in enumerate(gdf.geometry):
        if not geom.is_valid:
            errors.append(f"Self-intersection at feature {i}: {geom.is_valid}")

    return errors

Network Analysis

Advanced Routing

import osmnx as ox
import networkx as nx

# Download and prepare network
G = ox.graph_from_place('Portland, Maine, USA', network_type='drive')
G = ox.add_edge_speeds(G)
G = ox.add_edge_travel_times(G)

# Multi-criteria routing
def multi_criteria_routing(G, orig, dest, weights=['length', 'travel_time']):
    """
    Find routes optimizing for multiple criteria.
    """
    # Normalize weights
    for w in weights:
        values = [G.edges[e][w] for e in G.edges]
        min_val, max_val = min(values), max(values)
        for e in G.edges:
            G.edges[e][f'{w}_norm'] = (G.edges[e][w] - min_val) / (max_val - min_val)

    # Combined weight
    for e in G.edges:
        G.edges[e]['combined'] = sum(G.edges[e][f'{w}_norm'] for w in weights) / len(weights)

    # Find path
    route = nx.shortest_path(G, orig, dest, weight='combined')
    return route

# Isochrone (accessibility area)
def isochrone(G, center_node, time_limit=600):
    """
    Calculate accessible area within time limit.
    """
    # Get subgraph of reachable nodes
    subgraph = nx.ego_graph(G, center_node,
                            radius=time_limit,
                            distance='travel_time')

    # Get node geometries
    nodes = ox.graph_to_gdfs(subgraph, edges=False)

    # Create polygon of accessible area
    from shapely.geometry import MultiPoint
    points = MultiPoint(nodes.geometry.tolist())
    isochrone_polygon = points.convex_hull

    return isochrone_polygon, subgraph

# Betweenness centrality (importance of nodes)
def calculate_centrality(G):
    """
    Calculate betweenness centrality for network analysis.
    """
    centrality = nx.betweenness_centrality(G, weight='length')

    # Add to nodes
    for node, value in centrality.items():
        G.nodes[node]['betweenness'] = value

    return centrality

Service Area Analysis

def service_area(G, facilities, max_distance=1000):
    """
    Calculate service areas for facilities.
    """

    service_areas = []

    for facility in facilities:
        # Find nearest node
        node = ox.distance.nearest_nodes(G, facility.x, facility.y)

        # Get nodes within distance
        subgraph = nx.ego_graph(G, node, radius=max_distance, distance='length')

        # Create convex hull
        nodes = ox.graph_to_gdfs(subgraph, edges=False)
        service_area = nodes.geometry.unary_union.convex_hull

        service_areas.append({
            'facility': facility,
            'area': service_area,
            'nodes_served': len(subgraph.nodes())
        })

    return service_areas

# Location-allocation (facility location)
def location_allocation(demand_points, candidate_sites, n_facilities=5):
    """
    Solve facility location problem (p-median).
    """
    from scipy.spatial.distance import cdist

    # Distance matrix
    coords_demand = [[p.x, p.y] for p in demand_points]
    coords_sites = [[s.x, s.y] for s in candidate_sites]
    distances = cdist(coords_demand, coords_sites)

    # Simple heuristic: K-means clustering
    from sklearn.cluster import KMeans

    kmeans = KMeans(n_clusters=n_facilities, random_state=42)
    labels = kmeans.fit_predict(coords_demand)

    # Find nearest candidate site to each cluster center
    facilities = []
    for i in range(n_facilities):
        cluster_center = kmeans.cluster_centers_[i]
        nearest_site_idx = np.argmin(cdist([cluster_center], coords_sites))
        facilities.append(candidate_sites[nearest_site_idx])

    return facilities

For more advanced examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Big Data

Big Data and Cloud Computing

Distributed processing, cloud platforms, and GPU acceleration for geospatial data.

Distributed Processing with Dask

Dask-GeoPandas

import dask_geopandas
import geopandas as gpd
import dask.dataframe as dd

# Read large GeoPackage in chunks
dask_gdf = dask_geopandas.read_file('large.gpkg', npartitions=10)

# Perform spatial operations
dask_gdf['area'] = dask_gdf.geometry.area
dask_gdf['buffer'] = dask_gdf.geometry.buffer(1000)

# Compute result
result = dask_gdf.compute()

# Distributed spatial join
dask_points = dask_geopandas.read_file('points.gpkg', npartitions=5)
dask_zones = dask_geopandas.read_file('zones.gpkg', npartitions=3)

joined = dask_points.sjoin(dask_zones, how='inner', predicate='within')
result = joined.compute()

Dask for Raster Processing

import dask.array as da
import rasterio

# Create lazy-loaded raster array
def lazy_raster(path, chunks=(1, 1024, 1024)):
    with rasterio.open(path) as src:
        profile = src.profile
        # Create dask array
        raster = da.from_rasterio(src, chunks=chunks)

    return raster, profile

# Process large raster
raster, profile = lazy_raster('very_large.tif')

# Calculate NDVI (lazy operation)
ndvi = (raster[3] - raster[2]) / (raster[3] + raster[2] + 1e-8)

# Apply function to each chunk
def process_chunk(chunk):
    return (chunk - chunk.min()) / (chunk.max() - chunk.min())

normalized = da.map_blocks(process_chunk, ndvi, dtype=np.float32)

# Compute and save
with rasterio.open('output.tif', 'w', **profile) as dst:
    dst.write(normalized.compute())

Dask Distributed Cluster

from dask.distributed import Client

# Connect to cluster
client = Client('scheduler-address:8786')

# Or create local cluster
from dask.distributed import LocalCluster
cluster = LocalCluster(n_workers=4, threads_per_worker=2, memory_limit='4GB')
client = Client(cluster)

# Use Dask-GeoPandas with cluster
dask_gdf = dask_geopandas.from_geopandas(gdf, npartitions=10)
dask_gdf = dask_gdf.set_index(calculate_spatial_partitions=True)

# Operations are now distributed
result = dask_gdf.buffer(1000).compute()

Cloud Platforms

Google Earth Engine

import ee

# Initialize
ee.Initialize(project='your-project')

# Large-scale composite
def create_annual_composite(year):
    """Create cloud-free annual composite."""

    # Sentinel-2 collection
    s2 = ee.ImageCollection('COPERNICUS/S2_SR_HARMONIZED') \
        .filterBounds(ee.Geometry.Rectangle([-125, 32, -114, 42])) \
        .filterDate(f'{year}-01-01', f'{year}-12-31') \
        .filter(ee.Filter.lt('CLOUDY_PIXEL_PERCENTAGE', 20))

    # Cloud masking
    def mask_s2(image):
        qa = image.select('QA60')
        cloud_bit_mask = 1 << 10
        cirrus_bit_mask = 1 << 11
        mask = qa.bitwiseAnd(cloud_bit_mask).eq(0).And(
               qa.bitwiseAnd(cirrus_bit_mask).eq(0))
        return image.updateMask(mask.Not())

    s2_masked = s2.map(mask_s2)

    # Median composite
    composite = s2_masked.median().clip(roi)

    return composite

# Export to Google Drive
task = ee.batch.Export.image.toDrive(
    image=composite,
    description='CA_composite_2023',
    scale=10,
    region=roi,
    crs='EPSG:32611',
    maxPixels=1e13
)
task.start()

Planetary Computer (Microsoft)

import pystac_client
import planetary_computer
import odc.stac
import xarray as xr

# Search catalog
catalog = pystac_client.Client.open(
    "https://planetarycomputer.microsoft.com/api/stac/v1",
    modifier=planetary_computer.sign_inplace,
)

# Search NAIP imagery
search = catalog.search(
    collections=["naip"],
    bbox=[-125, 32, -114, 42],
    datetime="2020-01-01/2023-12-31",
)

items = list(search.get_items())

# Load as xarray dataset
data = odc.stac.load(
    items[:100],  # Process in batches
    bands=["image"],
    crs="EPSG:32611",
    resolution=1.0,
    chunkx=1024,
    chunky=1024,
)

# Compute statistics lazily
mean = data.mean().compute()
std = data.std().compute()

# Export to COG
import rioxarray
data.isel(time=0).rio.to_raster('naip_composite.tif', compress='DEFLATE')

Google Cloud Storage

from google.cloud import storage
import rasterio
from rasterio.session import GSSession

# Upload to GCS
client = storage.Client()
bucket = client.bucket('my-bucket')
blob = bucket.blob('geospatial/data.tif')
blob.upload_from_filename('local_data.tif')

# Read directly from GCS
with rasterio.open(
    'gs://my-bucket/geospatial/data.tif',
    session=GSSession()
) as src:
    data = src.read()

# Use with Rioxarray
import rioxarray
da = rioxarray.open_rasterio('gs://my-bucket/geospatial/data.tif')

GPU Acceleration

CuPy for Raster Processing

import cupy as cp
import numpy as np

def gpu_ndvi(nir, red):
    """Calculate NDVI on GPU."""
    # Transfer to GPU
    nir_gpu = cp.asarray(nir)
    red_gpu = cp.asarray(red)

    # Calculate on GPU
    ndvi_gpu = (nir_gpu - red_gpu) / (nir_gpu + red_gpu + 1e-8)

    # Transfer back
    return cp.asnumpy(ndvi_gpu)

# Batch processing
def batch_process_gpu(raster_path):
    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
        data = src.read()  # (bands, height, width)

    data_gpu = cp.asarray(data)

    # Process all bands
    for i in range(data.shape[0]):
        data_gpu[i] = (data_gpu[i] - data_gpu[i].min()) / \
                      (data_gpu[i].max() - data_gpu[i].min())

    return cp.asnumpy(data_gpu)

RAPIDS for Spatial Analysis

import cudf
import cuspatial

# Load data to GPU
gdf_gpu = cuspatial.from_geopandas(gdf)

# Spatial join on GPU
points_gpu = cuspatial.from_geopandas(points_gdf)
polygons_gpu = cuspatial.from_geopandas(polygons_gdf)

joined = cuspatial.join_polygon_points(
    polygons_gpu,
    points_gpu
)

# Convert back
result = joined.to_pandas()

PyTorch for Geospatial Deep Learning

import torch
from torch.utils.data import DataLoader

# Custom dataset
class SatelliteDataset(torch.utils.data.Dataset):
    def __init__(self, image_paths, label_paths):
        self.image_paths = image_paths
        self.label_paths = label_paths

    def __getitem__(self, idx):
        with rasterio.open(self.image_paths[idx]) as src:
            image = src.read().astype(np.float32)

        with rasterio.open(self.label_paths[idx]) as src:
            label = src.read(1).astype(np.int64)

        return torch.from_numpy(image), torch.from_numpy(label)

# DataLoader with GPU prefetching
dataset = SatelliteDataset(images, labels)
loader = DataLoader(
    dataset,
    batch_size=16,
    shuffle=True,
    num_workers=4,
    pin_memory=True,  # Faster transfer to GPU
)

# Training with mixed precision
from torch.cuda.amp import autocast, GradScaler

scaler = GradScaler()

for images, labels in loader:
    images, labels = images.to('cuda'), labels.to('cuda')

    with autocast():
        outputs = model(images)
        loss = criterion(outputs, labels)

    scaler.scale(loss).backward()
    scaler.step(optimizer)
    scaler.update()

Efficient Data Formats

Cloud-Optimized GeoTIFF (COG)

from rio_cogeo.cogeo import cog_translate

# Convert to COG
cog_translate(
    src_path='input.tif',
    dst_path='output_cog.tif',
    dst_kwds={'compress': 'DEFLATE', 'predictor': 2},
    overview_level=5,
    overview_resampling='average',
    config={'GDAL_TIFF_INTERNAL_MASK': True}
)

# Create overviews for faster access
with rasterio.open('output.tif', 'r+') as src:
    src.build_overviews([2, 4, 8, 16], resampling='average')
    src.update_tags(ns='rio_overview', resampling='average')

Zarr for Multidimensional Arrays

import xarray as xr
import zarr

# Create Zarr store
store = zarr.DirectoryStore('data.zarr')

# Save datacube to Zarr
ds.to_zarr(store, consolidated=True)

# Read efficiently
ds = xr.open_zarr('data.zarr', consolidated=True)

# Extract subset efficiently
subset = ds.sel(time='2023-01', latitude=slice(30, 40))

Parquet for Vector Data

import geopandas as gpd

# Write to Parquet (with spatial index)
gdf.to_parquet('data.parquet', compression='snappy', index=True)

# Read efficiently
gdf = gpd.read_parquet('data.parquet')

# Read subset with filtering
import pyarrow.parquet as pq
table = pq.read_table('data.parquet', filters=[('column', '==', 'value')])

For more big data examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Code Examples

Code Examples

500+ code examples organized by category and programming language.

Python Examples

Core Operations

# 1. Read GeoJSON
import geopandas as gpd
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')

# 2. Read Shapefile
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.shp')

# 3. Read GeoPackage
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.gpkg', layer='layer_name')

# 4. Reproject
gdf_utm = gdf.to_crs('EPSG:32633')

# 5. Buffer
gdf['buffer_1km'] = gdf.geometry.buffer(1000)

# 6. Spatial join
joined = gpd.sjoin(points, polygons, how='inner', predicate='within')

# 7. Dissolve
dissolved = gdf.dissolve(by='category')

# 8. Clip
clipped = gpd.clip(gdf, mask)

# 9. Calculate area
gdf['area_km2'] = gdf.geometry.area / 1e6

# 10. Calculate length
gdf['length_km'] = gdf.geometry.length / 1000

Raster Operations

# 11. Read raster
import rasterio
with rasterio.open('raster.tif') as src:
    data = src.read()
    profile = src.profile
    crs = src.crs

# 12. Read single band
with rasterio.open('raster.tif') as src:
    band1 = src.read(1)

# 13. Read with window
with rasterio.open('large.tif') as src:
    window = ((0, 1000), (0, 1000))
    subset = src.read(1, window=window)

# 14. Write raster
with rasterio.open('output.tif', 'w', **profile) as dst:
    dst.write(data)

# 15. Calculate NDVI
red = src.read(4)
nir = src.read(8)
ndvi = (nir - red) / (nir + red + 1e-8)

# 16. Mask raster with polygon
from rasterio.mask import mask
masked, transform = mask(src, [polygon.geometry], crop=True)

# 17. Reproject raster
from rasterio.warp import reproject, calculate_default_transform
dst_transform, dst_width, dst_height = calculate_default_transform(
    src.crs, 'EPSG:32633', src.width, src.height, *src.bounds)

Visualization

# 18. Static plot with GeoPandas
gdf.plot(column='value', cmap='YlOrRd', legend=True, figsize=(12, 8))

# 19. Interactive map with Folium
import folium
m = folium.Map(location=[37.7, -122.4], zoom_start=12)
folium.GeoJson(gdf).add_to(m)

# 20. Choropleth
folium.Choropleth(gdf, data=stats, columns=['id', 'value'],
                  key_on='feature.properties.id').add_to(m)

# 21. Add markers
for _, row in points.iterrows():
    folium.Marker([row.lat, row.lon]).add_to(m)

# 22. Map with Contextily
import contextily as ctx
ax = gdf.plot(alpha=0.5)
ctx.add_basemap(ax, crs=gdf.crs)

# 23. Multi-layer map
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
gdf1.plot(ax=ax, color='blue')
gdf2.plot(ax=ax, color='red')

# 24. 3D plot
import pydeck as pdk
pdk.Deck(layers=[pdk.Layer('ScatterplotLayer', data=df)], map_style='mapbox://styles/mapbox/dark-v9')

# 25. Time series map
import hvplot.geopandas
gdf.hvplot(c='value', geo=True, tiles='OSM', frame_width=600)

R Examples

# 26. Load sf package
library(sf)

# 27. Read shapefile
roads <- st_read("roads.shp")

# 28. Read GeoJSON
zones <- st_read("zones.geojson")

# 29. Check CRS
st_crs(roads)

# 30. Reproject
roads_utm <- st_transform(roads, 32610)

# 31. Buffer
roads_buffer <- st_buffer(roads, dist = 100)

# 32. Spatial join
joined <- st_join(roads, zones, join = st_intersects)

# 33. Calculate area
zones$area <- st_area(zones)

# 34. Dissolve
dissolved <- st_union(zones)

# 35. Plot
plot(zones$geometry)

Julia Examples

# 36. Load ArchGDAL
using ArchGDAL

# 37. Read shapefile
data = ArchGDAL.read("countries.shp") do dataset
    layer = dataset[1]
    features = []
    for feature in layer
        push!(features, ArchGDAL.getgeom(feature))
    end
    features
end

# 38. Create point
using GeoInterface
point = GeoInterface.Point(-122.4, 37.7)

# 39. Buffer
buffered = GeoInterface.buffer(point, 1000)

# 40. Intersection
intersection = GeoInterface.intersection(poly1, poly2)

JavaScript Examples

// 41. Turf.js point
const pt1 = turf.point([-122.4, 37.7]);

// 42. Distance
const distance = turf.distance(pt1, pt2, {units: 'kilometers'});

// 43. Buffer
const buffered = turf.buffer(pt1, 5, {units: 'kilometers'});

// 44. Within
const ptsWithin = turf.pointsWithinPolygon(points, polygon);

// 45. Bounding box
const bbox = turf.bbox(feature);

// 46. Area
const area = turf.area(polygon); // square meters

// 47. Along
const along = turf.along(line, 2, {units: 'kilometers'});

// 48. Nearest point
const nearest = turf.nearestPoint(pt, points);

// 49. Interpolate
const interpolated = turf.interpolate(line, 100);

// 50. Center
const center = turf.center(features);

Domain-Specific Examples

Remote Sensing

# 51. Sentinel-2 NDVI time series
import ee
s2 = ee.ImageCollection('COPERNICUS/S2_SR_HARMONIZED')
def add_ndvi(img):
    return img.addBands(img.normalizedDifference(['B8', 'B4']).rename('NDVI'))
s2_ndvi = s2.map(add_ndvi)

# 52. Landsat collection
landsat = ee.ImageCollection('LANDSAT/LC08/C02/T1_L2')
landsat = landsat.filter(ee.Filter.lt('CLOUD_COVER', 20))

# 53. Cloud masking
def mask_clouds(image):
    qa = image.select('QA60')
    mask = qa.bitwiseAnd(1 << 10).eq(0)
    return image.updateMask(mask)

# 54. Composite
median = s2.median()

# 55. Export
task = ee.batch.Export.image.toDrive(image, 'description', scale=10)

Machine Learning

# 56. Train Random Forest
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
rf = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, max_depth=20)
rf.fit(X_train, y_train)

# 57. Predict
prediction = rf.predict(X_test)

# 58. Feature importance
importances = pd.DataFrame({'feature': features, 'importance': rf.feature_importances_})

# 59. CNN model
import torch.nn as nn
class CNN(nn.Module):
    def __init__(self):
        super().__init__()
        self.conv1 = nn.Conv2d(4, 32, 3)
        self.conv2 = nn.Conv2d(32, 64, 3)
        self.fc = nn.Linear(64 * 28 * 28, 10)

# 60. Training loop
for epoch in range(epochs):
    outputs = model(images)
    loss = criterion(outputs, labels)
    loss.backward()
    optimizer.step()

Network Analysis

# 61. OSMnx street network
import osmnx as ox
G = ox.graph_from_place('City', network_type='drive')

# 62. Calculate shortest path
route = ox.shortest_path(G, orig_node, dest_node, weight='length')

# 63. Add edge attributes
G = ox.add_edge_speeds(G)
G = ox.add_edge_travel_times(G)

# 64. Nearest node
node = ox.distance.nearest_nodes(G, X, Y)

# 65. Plot route
ox.plot_graph_route(G, route)

Complete Workflows

Land Cover Classification

# 66. Complete classification workflow
def classify_imagery(image_path, training_gdf, output_path):
    from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
    import rasterio
    from rasterio.features import rasterize

    # Load imagery
    with rasterio.open(image_path) as src:
        image = src.read()
        profile = src.profile

    # Extract training data
    X, y = [], []
    for _, row in training_gdf.iterrows():
        mask = rasterize([(row.geometry, 1)], out_shape=image.shape[1:])
        pixels = image[:, mask > 0].T
        X.extend(pixels)
        y.extend([row['class']] * len(pixels))

    # Train
    rf = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100)
    rf.fit(X, y)

    # Predict
    image_flat = image.reshape(image.shape[0], -1).T
    prediction = rf.predict(image_flat)
    prediction = prediction.reshape(image.shape[1], image.shape[2])

    # Save
    profile.update(dtype=rasterio.uint8, count=1)
    with rasterio.open(output_path, 'w', **profile) as dst:
        dst.write(prediction.astype(rasterio.uint8), 1)

Flood Mapping

# 67. Flood inundation from DEM
def map_flood(dem_path, flood_level, output_path):
    import rasterio
    import numpy as np

    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src:
        dem = src.read(1)
        profile = src.profile

    # Identify flooded cells
    flooded = dem < flood_level

    # Calculate depth
    depth = np.where(flooded, flood_level - dem, 0)

    # Save
    with rasterio.open(output_path, 'w', **profile) as dst:
        dst.write(depth.astype(rasterio.float32), 1)

Terrain Analysis

# 68. Slope and aspect from DEM
def terrain_analysis(dem_path):
    import numpy as np
    from scipy import ndimage

    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src:
        dem = src.read(1)

    # Calculate gradients
    dy, dx = np.gradient(dem)

    # Slope in degrees
    slope = np.arctan(np.sqrt(dx**2 + dy**2)) * 180 / np.pi

    # Aspect
    aspect = np.arctan2(-dy, dx) * 180 / np.pi
    aspect = (90 - aspect) % 360

    return slope, aspect

Additional Examples (70-100)

# 69. Point in polygon test
point.within(polygon)

# 70. Nearest neighbor
from sklearn.neighbors import BallTree
tree = BallTree(coords)
distances, indices = tree.query(point)

# 71. Spatial index
from rtree import index
idx = index.Index()
for i, geom in enumerate(geometries):
    idx.insert(i, geom.bounds)

# 72. Clip raster
from rasterio.mask import mask
clipped, transform = mask(src, [polygon], crop=True)

# 73. Merge rasters
from rasterio.merge import merge
merged, transform = merge([src1, src2, src3])

# 74. Reproject image
from rasterio.warp import reproject
reproject(source, destination, src_transform=transform, src_crs=crs)

# 75. Zonal statistics
from rasterstats import zonal_stats
stats = zonal_stats(zones, raster, stats=['mean', 'sum'])

# 76. Extract values at points
from rasterio.sample import sample_gen
values = list(sample_gen(src, [(x, y), (x2, y2)]))

# 77. Resample raster
import rasterio
from rasterio.enums import Resampling
resampled = dst.read(out_shape=(src.height * 2, src.width * 2),
                    resampling=Resampling.bilinear)

# 78. Create regular grid
from shapely.geometry import box
grid = [box(xmin, ymin, xmin+dx, ymin+dy)
        for xmin in np.arange(minx, maxx, dx)
        for ymin in np.arange(miny, maxy, dy)]

# 79. Geocoding with geopy
from geopy.geocoders import Nominatim
geolocator = Nominatim(user_agent="geo_app")
location = geolocator.geocode("Golden Gate Bridge")

# 80. Reverse geocoding
location = geolocator.reverse("37.8, -122.4")

# 81. Calculate bearing
from geopy import distance
bearing = distance.geodesic(point1, point2).initial_bearing

# 82. Great circle distance
from geopy.distance import geodesic
d = geodesic(point1, point2).km

# 83. Create bounding box
from shapely.geometry import box
bbox = box(minx, miny, maxx, maxy)

# 84. Convex hull
hull = points.geometry.unary_union.convex_hull

# 85. Voronoi diagram
from scipy.spatial import Voronoi
vor = Voronoi(coords)

# 86. Kernel density estimation
from scipy.stats import gaussian_kde
kde = gaussian_kde(points)
density = kde(np.mgrid[xmin:xmax:100j, ymin:ymax:100j])

# 87. Hotspot analysis
from esda.getisord import G_Local
g_local = G_Local(values, weights)

# 88. Moran's I
from esda.moran import Moran
moran = Moran(values, weights)

# 89. Geary's C
from esda.geary import Geary
geary = Geary(values, weights)

# 90. Semi-variogram
from skgstat import Variogram
vario = Variogram(coords, values)

# 91. Kriging
from pykrige.ok import OrdinaryKriging
OK = OrdinaryKriging(X, Y, Z, variogram_model='spherical')

# 92. IDW interpolation
from scipy.interpolate import griddata
grid_z = griddata(points, values, (xi, yi), method='linear')

# 93. Natural neighbor interpolation
from scipy.interpolate import NearestNDInterpolator
interp = NearestNDInterpolator(points, values)

# 94. Spline interpolation
from scipy.interpolate import Rbf
rbf = Rbf(x, y, z, function='multiquadric')

# 95. Watershed delineation
from scipy.ndimage import label, watershed
markers = label(local_minima)
labels = watershed(elevation, markers)

# 96. Stream extraction
import richdem as rd
rd.FillDepressions(dem, in_place=True)
flow = rd.FlowAccumulation(dem, method='D8')
streams = flow > 1000

# 97. Hillshade
from scipy import ndimage
hillshade = np.sin(alt) * np.sin(slope) + np.cos(alt) * np.cos(slope) * np.cos(az - aspect)

# 98. Viewshed
def viewshed(dem, observer):
    # Line of sight calculation
    visible = np.ones_like(dem, dtype=bool)
    for angle in np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 360):
        # Cast ray and check visibility
        pass
    return visible

# 99. Shaded relief
from matplotlib.colors import LightSource
ls = LightSource(azdeg=315, altdeg=45)
shaded = ls.hillshade(elevation, vert_exaggeration=1)

# 100. Export to web tiles
from mercantile import tiles
from PIL import Image
for tile in tiles(w, s, z):
    # Render tile
    pass

For more examples by language and category, refer to the specific reference documents in this directory.

Reference: Coordinate Systems

Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS)

Complete guide to coordinate systems, projections, and transformations for geospatial data.

Table of Contents

  1. Fundamentals
  2. Common CRS Codes
  3. Projected vs Geographic
  4. UTM Zones
  5. Transformations
  6. Best Practices

Fundamentals

What is a CRS?

A Coordinate Reference System defines how coordinates relate to positions on Earth:

  • Geographic CRS: Uses latitude/longitude (degrees)
  • Projected CRS: Uses Cartesian coordinates (meters, feet)
  • Vertical CRS: Defines height/depth (e.g., ellipsoidal heights)

Components

  1. Datum: Mathematical model of Earth’s shape

    • WGS 84 (EPSG:4326) - Global GPS
    • NAD 83 (EPSG:4269) - North America
    • ETRS89 (EPSG:4258) - Europe

  2. Projection: Transformation from curved to flat surface

    • Cylindrical (Mercator)
    • Conic (Lambert Conformal)
    • Azimuthal (Polar Stereographic)

  3. Units: Degrees, meters, feet, etc.

Common CRS Codes

Geographic CRS (Lat/Lon)

EPSGNameAreaNotes
4326WGS 84GlobalGPS default, use for storage
4269NAD83North AmericaUSGS data, slightly different from WGS84
4258ETRS89EuropeEuropean reference frame
4612GDA94AustraliaAustralian datum

Projected CRS (Meters)

EPSGNameAreaDistortionNotes
3857Web MercatorGlobal (85°S-85°N)High near polesWeb maps (Google, OSM)
32601-32660UTM Zone NGlobal (1° bands)<1% per zoneMetric calculations
32701-32760UTM Zone SGlobal (1° bands)<1% per zoneSouthern hemisphere
3395MercatorWorldModerateWorld maps
5070CONUS AlbersUSA (conterminous)LowUS national mapping
2154Lambert-93FranceVery lowFrench national projection

Regional Projections

United States:

  • EPSG:5070 - US National Atlas Equal Area (CONUS)
  • EPSG:6350 - US National Atlas (Alaska)
  • EPSG:102003 - USA Contiguous Albers Equal Area
  • EPSG:2227 - California Zone 3 (US Feet)

Europe:

  • EPSG:3035 - Europe Equal Area 2001
  • EPSG:3857 - Web Mercator (web mapping)
  • EPSG:2154 - Lambert 93 (France)
  • EPSG:25832-25836 - UTM zones (ETRS89)

Other:

  • EPSG:3112 - GDA94 / MGA zone 52 (Australia)
  • EPSG:2056 - CH1903+ / LV95 (Switzerland)
  • EPSG:4326 - WGS 84 (global default)

Projected vs Geographic

When to Use Geographic (EPSG:4326)

✅ Storing data (databases, files) ✅ Global datasets ✅ Web APIs (GeoJSON, KML) ✅ Latitude/longitude queries ✅ GPS coordinates

# Bad: Distance calculation in geographic CRS
gpd.geographic_crs = "EPSG:4326"
distance = gdf.geometry.length  # WRONG! Returns degrees, not meters

# Good: Calculate distance in projected CRS
gdf_projected = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:32633")  # UTM Zone 33N
distance_m = gdf_projected.geometry.length  # Correct: meters

When to Use Projected

✅ Area/distance calculations ✅ Buffer operations ✅ Spatial analysis ✅ High-resolution mapping ✅ Engineering applications

import geopandas as gpd

# Project to appropriate UTM zone
gdf = gpd.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())

# Now area and distance are accurate
area_sqm = gdf.geometry.area
buffer_1km = gdf.geometry.buffer(1000)  # 1000 meters

Web Mercator Warning

⚠️ EPSG:3857 (Web Mercator) for visualization only

# DON'T use Web Mercator for area calculations
gdf_web = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:3857")
area = gdf_web.geometry.area  # WRONG! Significant distortion

# DO use appropriate projection
gdf_utm = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:32633")  # or estimate_utm_crs()
area = gdf_utm.geometry.area  # Correct

UTM Zones

Understanding UTM Zones

Earth is divided into 60 zones (6° longitude each):

  • Zones 1-60: West to East
  • Each zone divided into North (326xx) and South (327xx)

Finding Your UTM Zone

def get_utm_zone(longitude, latitude):
    """Get UTM zone EPSG code from coordinates."""
    import math

    zone = math.floor((longitude + 180) / 6) + 1

    if latitude >= 0:
        epsg = 32600 + zone  # Northern hemisphere
    else:
        epsg = 32700 + zone  # Southern hemisphere

    return f"EPSG:{epsg}"

# Example
get_utm_zone(-122.4, 37.7)  # Returns 'EPSG:32610' (Zone 10N)

Auto-Detect UTM Zone with GeoPandas

import geopandas as gpd

# Load data
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')

# Estimate best UTM zone
utm_crs = gdf.estimate_utm_crs()
print(f"Best UTM CRS: {utm_crs}")

# Reproject
gdf_projected = gdf.to_crs(utm_crs)

Special UTM Cases

UPS (Universal Polar Stereographic):

  • EPSG:5041 - UPS North (Arctic)
  • EPSG:5042 - UPS South (Antarctic)

UTM Non-standard:

  • EPSG:31466-31469 - German Gauss-Krüger zones
  • EPSG:2056 - Swiss LV95 (based on UTM principles)

Transformations

Basic Transformation

from pyproj import Transformer

# Create transformer
transformer = Transformer.from_crs(
    "EPSG:4326",  # WGS 84 (lat/lon)
    "EPSG:32633", # UTM Zone 33N (meters)
    always_xy=True  # Input: x=lon, y=lat (not y=lat, x=lon)
)

# Transform single point
lon, lat = -122.4, 37.7
x, y = transformer.transform(lon, lat)
print(f"Easting: {x:.2f}, Northing: {y:.2f}")

Batch Transformation

import numpy as np
from pyproj import Transformer

# Arrays of coordinates
lon_array = [-122.4, -122.3]
lat_array = [37.7, 37.8]

transformer = Transformer.from_crs("EPSG:4326", "EPSG:32610", always_xy=True)
xs, ys = transformer.transform(lon_array, lat_array)

Transformation with PyProj CRS

from pyproj import CRS

# Get CRS information
crs = CRS.from_epsg(32633)

print(f"Name: {crs.name}")
print(f"Type: {crs.type_name}")
print(f"Area of use: {crs.area_of_use.name}")
print(f"Datum: {crs.datum.name}")
print(f"Ellipsoid: {crs.ellipsoid_name}")

Best Practices

1. Always Know Your CRS

import geopandas as gpd

gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')

# Check CRS immediately
print(f"CRS: {gdf.crs}")  # Should never be None!

# If None, set it
if gdf.crs is None:
    gdf.set_crs("EPSG:4326", inplace=True)

2. Verify CRS Before Operations

def ensure_same_crs(gdf1, gdf2):
    """Ensure two GeoDataFrames have same CRS."""
    if gdf1.crs != gdf2.crs:
        gdf2 = gdf2.to_crs(gdf1.crs)
        print(f"Reprojected gdf2 to {gdf1.crs}")
    return gdf1, gdf2

# Use before spatial operations
zones, points = ensure_same_crs(zones_gdf, points_gdf)
result = gpd.sjoin(points, zones, predicate='within')

3. Use Appropriate Projections

# For local analysis (< 500km extent)
gdf_local = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())

# For national/regional analysis
gdf_us = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:5070")  # US National Atlas Equal Area
gdf_eu = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:3035")  # Europe Equal Area

# For web visualization
gdf_web = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:3857")  # Web Mercator

4. Preserve Original CRS

# Keep original as backup
gdf_original = gdf.copy()
original_crs = gdf.crs

# Do analysis in projected CRS
gdf_projected = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())
result = gdf_projected.geometry.buffer(1000)

# Convert back if needed
result = result.to_crs(original_crs)

Common Pitfalls

Mistake 1: Area in Degrees

# WRONG: Area in square degrees
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')
area = gdf.geometry.area  # Wrong!

# CORRECT: Use projected CRS
gdf_proj = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())
area_sqm = gdf_proj.geometry.area
area_sqkm = area_sqm / 1_000_000

Mistake 2: Buffer in Geographic CRS

# WRONG: Buffer of 1000 degrees
gdf['buffer'] = gdf.geometry.buffer(1000)

# CORRECT: Project first
gdf_proj = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:32610")
gdf_proj['buffer_km'] = gdf_proj.geometry.buffer(1000)  # 1000 meters

Mistake 3: Mixing CRS

# WRONG: Spatial join without checking CRS
result = gpd.sjoin(gdf1, gdf2, predicate='intersects')

# CORRECT: Ensure same CRS
if gdf1.crs != gdf2.crs:
    gdf2 = gdf2.to_crs(gdf1.crs)
result = gpd.sjoin(gdf1, gdf2, predicate='intersects')

Quick Reference

# Common operations

# Check CRS
gdf.crs
rasterio.open('file.tif').crs

# Reproject
gdf.to_crs("EPSG:32633")

# Auto-detect UTM
gdf.estimate_utm_crs()

# Transform single point
from pyproj import Transformer
tx = Transformer.from_crs("EPSG:4326", "EPSG:32610", always_xy=True)
x, y = tx.transform(lon, lat)

# Create custom CRS
from pyproj import CRS
custom_crs = CRS.from_proj4(
    "+proj=utm +zone=10 +ellps=WGS84 +datum=WGS84 +units=m +no_defs"
)

For more information, see:

Reference: Core Libraries

Core Geospatial Libraries

This reference covers the fundamental Python libraries for geospatial data processing.

GDAL (Geospatial Data Abstraction Library)

GDAL is the foundation for geospatial I/O in Python.

from osgeo import gdal

# Open a raster file
ds = gdal.Open('raster.tif')
band = ds.GetRasterBand(1)
data = band.ReadAsArray()

# Get geotransform
geotransform = ds.GetGeoTransform()
origin_x = geotransform[0]
pixel_width = geotransform[1]

# Get projection
proj = ds.GetProjection()

Rasterio

Rasterio provides a cleaner interface to GDAL.

import rasterio
import numpy as np

# Basic reading
with rasterio.open('raster.tif') as src:
    data = src.read()           # All bands
    band1 = src.read(1)         # Single band
    profile = src.profile       # Metadata

# Windowed reading (memory efficient)
with rasterio.open('large.tif') as src:
    window = ((0, 100), (0, 100))
    subset = src.read(1, window=window)

# Writing
with rasterio.open('output.tif', 'w',
                   driver='GTiff',
                   height=data.shape[0],
                   width=data.shape[1],
                   count=1,
                   dtype=data.dtype,
                   crs=src.crs,
                   transform=src.transform) as dst:
    dst.write(data, 1)

# Masking
with rasterio.open('raster.tif') as src:
    masked_data, mask = rasterio.mask.mask(src, shapes=[polygon], crop=True)

Fiona

Fiona handles vector data I/O.

import fiona

# Read features
with fiona.open('data.geojson') as src:
    for feature in src:
        geom = feature['geometry']
        props = feature['properties']

# Get schema and CRS
with fiona.open('data.shp') as src:
    schema = src.schema
    crs = src.crs

# Write data
schema = {'geometry': 'Point', 'properties': {'name': 'str'}}
with fiona.open('output.geojson', 'w', driver='GeoJSON',
                schema=schema, crs='EPSG:4326') as dst:
    dst.write({
        'geometry': {'type': 'Point', 'coordinates': [0, 0]},
        'properties': {'name': 'Origin'}
    })

Shapely

Shapely provides geometric operations.

from shapely.geometry import Point, LineString, Polygon
from shapely.ops import unary_union

# Create geometries
point = Point(0, 0)
line = LineString([(0, 0), (1, 1)])
poly = Polygon([(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)])

# Geometric operations
buffered = point.buffer(1)              # Buffer
simplified = poly.simplify(0.01)        # Simplify
centroid = poly.centroid                 # Centroid
intersection = poly1.intersection(poly2) # Intersection

# Spatial relationships
point.within(poly)      # True if point inside polygon
poly1.intersects(poly2) # True if geometries intersect
poly1.contains(poly2)   # True if poly2 inside poly1

# Unary union
combined = unary_union([poly1, poly2, poly3])

# Buffer with different joins
buffer_round = point.buffer(1, quad_segs=16)
buffer_mitre = point.buffer(1, mitre_limit=1, join_style=2)

PyProj

PyProj handles coordinate transformations.

from pyproj import Transformer, CRS

# Coordinate transformation
transformer = Transformer.from_crs('EPSG:4326', 'EPSG:32633')
x, y = transformer.transform(lat, lon)
x_inv, y_inv = transformer.transform(x, y, direction='INVERSE')

# Batch transformation
lon_array = [-122.4, -122.3]
lat_array = [37.7, 37.8]
x_array, y_array = transformer.transform(lon_array, lat_array)

# Always z/height if available
transformer_always_z = Transformer.from_crs(
    'EPSG:4326', 'EPSG:32633', always_z=True
)

# Get CRS info
crs = CRS.from_epsg(4326)
print(crs.name)  # WGS 84
print(crs.axis_info)  # Axis info

# Custom transformation
transformer = Transformer.from_pipeline(
    'proj=pipeline step inv proj=utm zone=32 ellps=WGS84 step proj=unitconvert xy_in=rad xy_out=deg'
)

GeoPandas

GeoPandas combines pandas with geospatial capabilities.

import geopandas as gpd

# Reading data
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.shp', encoding='utf-8')
gdf = gpd.read_postgis('SELECT * FROM data', con=engine)

# Writing data
gdf.to_file('output.geojson', driver='GeoJSON')
gdf.to_file('output.gpkg', layer='data', use_arrow=True)

# CRS operations
gdf.crs  # Get CRS
gdf = gdf.to_crs('EPSG:32633')  # Reproject
gdf = gdf.set_crs('EPSG:4326')  # Set CRS

# Geometric operations
gdf['area'] = gdf.geometry.area
gdf['length'] = gdf.geometry.length
gdf['buffer'] = gdf.geometry.buffer(100)
gdf['centroid'] = gdf.geometry.centroid

# Spatial joins
joined = gpd.sjoin(gdf1, gdf2, how='inner', predicate='intersects')
joined = gpd.sjoin_nearest(gdf1, gdf2, max_distance=1000)

# Overlay operations
intersection = gpd.overlay(gdf1, gdf2, how='intersection')
union = gpd.overlay(gdf1, gdf2, how='union')
difference = gpd.overlay(gdf1, gdf2, how='difference')

# Dissolve
dissolved = gdf.dissolve(by='region', aggfunc='sum')

# Clipping
clipped = gpd.clip(gdf, mask_gdf)

# Spatial indexing (for performance)
idx = gdf.sindex
possible_matches = idx.intersection(polygon.bounds)

Common Workflows

Batch Reprojection

import geopandas as gpd
from pathlib import Path

input_dir = Path('input')
output_dir = Path('output')

for shp in input_dir.glob('*.shp'):
    gdf = gpd.read_file(shp)
    gdf = gdf.to_crs('EPSG:32633')
    gdf.to_file(output_dir / shp.name)

Raster to Vector Conversion

import rasterio.features
import geopandas as gpd
from shapely.geometry import shape

with rasterio.open('raster.tif') as src:
    image = src.read(1)
    results = (
        {'properties': {'value': v}, 'geometry': s}
        for s, v in rasterio.features.shapes(image, transform=src.transform)
    )

geoms = list(results)
gdf = gpd.GeoDataFrame.from_features(geoms, crs=src.crs)

Vector to Raster Conversion

from rasterio.features import rasterize
import geopandas as gpd

gdf = gpd.read_file('polygons.gpkg')
shapes = ((geom, 1) for geom in gdf.geometry)

raster = rasterize(
    shapes,
    out_shape=(height, width),
    transform=transform,
    fill=0,
    dtype=np.uint8
)

Combining Multiple Rasters

import rasterio.merge
import rasterio as rio

files = ['tile1.tif', 'tile2.tif', 'tile3.tif']
datasets = [rio.open(f) for f in files]

merged, transform = rasterio.merge.merge(datasets)

# Save
profile = datasets[0].profile
profile.update(transform=transform, height=merged.shape[1], width=merged.shape[2])

with rio.open('merged.tif', 'w', **profile) as dst:
    dst.write(merged)

For more detailed examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Data Sources

Geospatial Data Sources

Comprehensive catalog of satellite imagery, vector data, and APIs for geospatial analysis.

Satellite Data Sources

Sentinel Missions (ESA)

PlatformResolutionCoverageAccess
Sentinel-210-60mGlobalhttps://scihub.copernicus.eu/
Sentinel-15-40m (SAR)Globalhttps://scihub.copernicus.eu/
Sentinel-3300m-1kmGlobalhttps://scihub.copernicus.eu/
Sentinel-5PVariousGlobalhttps://scihub.copernicus.eu/
# Access via Sentinelsat
from sentinelsat import SentinelAPI, read_geojson, geojson_to_wkt

api = SentinelAPI('user', 'password', 'https://scihub.copernicus.eu/dhus')

# Search
products = api.query(geojson_to_wkt(aoi_geojson),
                     date=('20230101', '20231231'),
                     platformname='Sentinel-2',
                     cloudcoverpercentage=(0, 20))

# Download
api.download_all(products)

Landsat (USGS/NASA)

PlatformResolutionCoverageAccess
Landsat 930mGlobalhttps://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
Landsat 830mGlobalhttps://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
Landsat 715-60mGlobalhttps://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
Landsat 5-730-60mGlobalhttps://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/

Commercial Satellite Data

ProviderPlatformResolutionAPI
PlanetPlanetScope, SkySat0.5-3mplanet.com
MaxarWorldView, GeoEye0.3-1.2mmaxar.com
AirbusPleiades, SPOT0.5-2mairbus.com
CapellaCapella-2 (SAR)0.5-1mcapellaspace.com

Elevation Data

DatasetResolutionCoverageSource
AW3D3030mGlobalhttps://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/en/aw3d30/
SRTM30m56°S-60°Nhttps://www.usgs.gov/
ASTER GDEM30m83°S-83°Nhttps://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/
Copernicus DEM30mGlobalhttps://copernicus.eu/
ArcticDEM2-10mArctichttps://www.pgc.umn.edu/
# Download SRTM via API
import elevation

# Download SRTM 1 arc-second (30m)
elevation.clip(bounds=(-122.5, 37.7, -122.3, 37.9), output='srtm.tif')

# Clean and fill gaps
elevation.clean('srtm.tif', 'srtm_filled.tif')

Land Cover Data

DatasetResolutionClassesSource
ESA WorldCover10m11 classeshttps://worldcover2021.esa.int/
ESRI Land Cover10m10 classeshttps://www.esri.com/
Copernicus Global100m23 classeshttps://land.copernicus.eu/
MODIS MCD12Q1500m17 classeshttps://lpdaac.usgs.gov/
NLCD (US)30m20 classeshttps://www.mrlc.gov/

Climate & Weather Data

Reanalysis Data

DatasetResolutionTemporalAccess
ERA531kmHourly (1979+)https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/
MERRA-250kmHourly (1980+)https://gmao.gsfc.nasa.gov/
JRA-5555km3-hourly (1958+)https://jra.kishou.go.jp/
# Download ERA5 via CDS API
import cdsapi

c = cdsapi.Client()

c.retrieve(
    'reanalysis-era5-single-levels',
    {
        'product_type': 'reanalysis',
        'variable': '2m_temperature',
        'year': '2023',
        'month': '01',
        'day': '01',
        'time': '12:00',
        'area': [37.9, -122.5, 37.7, -122.3],
        'format': 'netcdf'
    },
    'era5_temp.nc'
)

OpenStreetMap Data

Access Methods

# Via OSMnx
import osmnx as ox

# Download place boundary
gdf = ox.geocode_to_gdf('San Francisco, CA')

# Download street network
G = ox.graph_from_place('San Francisco, CA', network_type='drive')

# Download building footprints
buildings = ox.geometries_from_place('San Francisco, CA', tags={'building': True})

# Via Overpass API
import requests

overpass_url = "http://overpass-api.de/api/interpreter"
query = """
    [out:json];
    way["highway"](37.7,-122.5,37.9,-122.3);
    out geom;
"""

response = requests.get(overpass_url, params={'data': query})
data = response.json()

Vector Data Sources

Natural Earth

import geopandas as gpd

# Admin boundaries (scale: 10m, 50m, 110m)
countries = gpd.read_file('https://naturalearth.s3.amazonaws.com/10m_cultural/ne_10m_admin_0_countries.zip')
urban_areas = gpd.read_file('https://naturalearth.s3.amazonaws.com/10m_cultural/ne_10m_urban_areas.zip')
ports = gpd.read_file('https://naturalearth.s3.amazonaws.com/10m_cultural/ne_10m_ports.zip')

Other Sources

DatasetTypeAccess
GADMAdmin boundarieshttps://gadm.org/
HydroSHEDSRivers, basinshttps://www.hydrosheds.org/
Global Power PlantPower plantshttps://datasets.wri.org/
WorldPopPopulationhttps://www.worldpop.org/
GPWPopulationhttps://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/
HDXHumanitarian datahttps://data.humdata.org/

APIs

Google Maps Platform

import requests

# Geocoding
url = "https://maps.googleapis.com/maps/api/geocode/json"
params = {
    'address': 'Golden Gate Bridge',
    'key': YOUR_API_KEY
}

response = requests.get(url, params=params)
data = response.json()
location = data['results'][0]['geometry']['location']

Mapbox

# Geocoding
import requests

url = "https://api.mapbox.com/geocoding/v5/mapbox.places/Golden%20Gate%20Bridge.json"
params = {'access_token': YOUR_ACCESS_TOKEN}

response = requests.get(url, params=params)
data = response.json()

OpenWeatherMap

# Current weather
url = "https://api.openweathermap.org/data/2.5/weather"
params = {
    'lat': 37.7,
    'lon': -122.4,
    'appid': YOUR_API_KEY
}

response = requests.get(url, params=params)
weather = response.json()

Data APIs in Python

STAC (SpatioTemporal Asset Catalog)

import pystac_client

# Connect to STAC catalog
catalog = pystac_client.Client.open("https://earth-search.aws.element84.com/v1")

# Search
search = catalog.search(
    collections=["sentinel-2-l2a"],
    bbox=[-122.5, 37.7, -122.3, 37.9],
    datetime="2023-01-01/2023-12-31",
    query={"eo:cloud_cover": {"lt": 20}}
)

items = search.get_all_items()

Planetary Computer

import planetary_computer
import pystac_client

catalog = pystac_client.Client.open(
    "https://planetarycomputer.microsoft.com/api/stac/v1",
    modifier=planetary_computer.sign_inplace
)

# Search and sign items
items = catalog.search(...)
signed_items = [planetary_computer.sign(item) for item in items]

Download Scripts

Automated Download Script

from sentinelsat import SentinelAPI
import rasterio
from rasterio.warp import calculate_default_transform, reproject, Resampling
import os

def download_and_process_sentinel2(aoi, date_range, output_dir):
    """
    Download and process Sentinel-2 imagery.
    """
    # Initialize API
    api = SentinelAPI('user', 'password', 'https://scihub.copernicus.eu/dhus')

    # Search
    products = api.query(
        aoi,
        date=date_range,
        platformname='Sentinel-2',
        processinglevel='Level-2A',
        cloudcoverpercentage=(0, 20)
    )

    # Download
    api.download_all(products, directory_path=output_dir)

    # Process each product
    for product in products:
        product_path = f"{output_dir}/{product['identifier']}.SAFE"
        processed = process_sentinel2_product(product_path)
        save_rgb_composite(processed, f"{output_dir}/{product['identifier']}_rgb.tif")

def process_sentinel2_product(product_path):
    """Process Sentinel-2 L2A product."""
    # Find 10m bands (B02, B03, B04, B08)
    bands = {}
    for band_id in ['B02', 'B03', 'B04', 'B08']:
        band_path = find_band_file(product_path, band_id, resolution='10m')
        with rasterio.open(band_path) as src:
            bands[band_id] = src.read(1)
            profile = src.profile

    # Stack bands
    stacked = np.stack([bands['B04'], bands['B03'], bands['B02']])  # RGB

    return stacked, profile

Data Quality Assessment

def assess_data_quality(raster_path):
    """
    Assess quality of geospatial raster data.
    """
    import rasterio
    import numpy as np

    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
        data = src.read()
        profile = src.profile

    quality_report = {
        'nodata_percentage': np.sum(data == src.nodata) / data.size * 100,
        'data_range': (data.min(), data.max()),
        'mean': np.mean(data),
        'std': np.std(data),
        'has_gaps': np.any(data == src.nodata),
        'projection': profile['crs'],
        'resolution': (profile['transform'][0], abs(profile['transform'][4]))
    }

    return quality_report

For data access code examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Gis Software

GIS Software Integration

Guide to integrating with major GIS platforms: QGIS, ArcGIS, GRASS GIS, and SAGA GIS.

QGIS / PyQGIS

Running Python Scripts in QGIS

# Processing framework script
from qgis.core import (QgsProject, QgsVectorLayer, QgsRasterLayer,
                       QgsProcessingAlgorithm, QgsProcessingParameterRasterLayer)

# Load layers
vector_layer = QgsVectorLayer("path/to/shapefile.shp", "layer_name", "ogr")
raster_layer = QgsRasterLayer("path/to/raster.tif", "raster_name", "gdal")

# Add to project
QgsProject.instance().addMapLayer(vector_layer)
QgsProject.instance().addMapLayer(raster_layer)

# Access features
for feature in vector_layer.getFeatures():
    geom = feature.geometry()
    attrs = feature.attributes()

Creating QGIS Processing Scripts

from qgis.PyQt.QtCore import QCoreApplication
from qgis.core import (QgsProcessingAlgorithm, QgsProcessingParameterRasterDestination,
                       QgsProcessingParameterRasterLayer)

class NDVIAlgorithm(QgsProcessingAlgorithm):
    INPUT = 'INPUT'
    OUTPUT = 'OUTPUT'

    def tr(self, string):
        return QCoreApplication.translate('Processing', string)

    def createInstance(self):
        return NDVIAlgorithm()

    def name(self):
        return 'ndvi_calculation'

    def displayName(self):
        return self.tr('Calculate NDVI')

    def group(self):
        return self.tr('Raster')

    def groupId(self):
        return 'raster'

    def shortHelpString(self):
        return self.tr("Calculate NDVI from Sentinel-2 imagery")

    def initAlgorithm(self, config=None):
        self.addParameter(QgsProcessingParameterRasterLayer(
            self.INPUT, self.tr('Input Sentinel-2 Raster')))

        self.addParameter(QgsProcessingParameterRasterDestination(
            self.OUTPUT, self.tr('Output NDVI')))

    def processAlgorithm(self, parameters, context, feedback):
        raster = self.parameterAsRasterLayer(parameters, self.INPUT, context)

        # NDVI calculation
        # ... implementation ...

        return {self.OUTPUT: destination}

Plugin Development

# __init__.py
def classFactory(iface):
    from .my_plugin import MyPlugin
    return MyPlugin(iface)

# my_plugin.py
from qgis.PyQt.QtCore import QSettings
from qgis.PyQt.QtWidgets import QAction
from qgis.core import QgsProject

class MyPlugin:
    def __init__(self, iface):
        self.iface = iface

    def initGui(self):
        self.action = QAction("My Plugin", self.iface.mainWindow())
        self.action.triggered.connect(self.run)
        self.iface.addPluginToMenu("My Plugin", self.action)

    def run(self):
        # Plugin logic here
        pass

    def unload(self):
        self.iface.removePluginMenu("My Plugin", self.action)

ArcGIS / ArcPy

Basic ArcPy Operations

import arcpy

# Set workspace
arcpy.env.workspace = "C:/data"

# Set output overwrite
arcpy.env.overwriteOutput = True

# Set scratch workspace
arcpy.env.scratchWorkspace = "C:/data/scratch"

# List features
feature_classes = arcpy.ListFeatureClasses()
rasters = arcpy.ListRasters()

Geoprocessing Workflows

import arcpy
from arcpy.sa import *

# Check out Spatial Analyst extension
arcpy.CheckOutExtension("Spatial")

# Set environment
arcpy.env.workspace = "C:/data"
arcpy.env.cellSize = 10
arcpy.env.extent = "study_area"

# Slope analysis
out_slope = Slope("dem.tif")
out_slope.save("slope.tif")

# Aspect
out_aspect = Aspect("dem.tif")
out_aspect.save("aspect.tif")

# Hillshade
out_hillshade = Hillshade("dem.tif", azimuth=315, altitude=45)
out_hillshade.save("hillshade.tif")

# Viewshed analysis
out_viewshed = Viewshed("observer_points.shp", "dem.tif", obs_elevation_field="HEIGHT")
out_viewshed.save("viewshed.tif")

# Cost distance
cost_raster = CostDistance("source.shp", "cost.tif")
cost_raster.save("cost_distance.tif")

# Hydrology: Flow direction
flow_dir = FlowDirection("dem.tif")
flow_dir.save("flowdir.tif")

# Flow accumulation
flow_acc = FlowAccumulation(flow_dir)
flow_acc.save("flowacc.tif")

# Stream delineation
stream = Con(flow_acc > 1000, 1)
stream_raster = StreamOrder(stream, flow_dir)

Vector Analysis

# Buffer analysis
arcpy.Buffer_analysis("roads.shp", "roads_buffer.shp", "100 meters")

# Spatial join
arcpy.SpatialJoin_analysis("points.shp", "zones.shp", "points_joined.shp",
                           join_operation="JOIN_ONE_TO_ONE",
                           match_option="HAVE_THEIR_CENTER_IN")

# Dissolve
arcpy.Dissolve_management("parcels.shp", "parcels_dissolved.shp",
                          dissolve_field="OWNER_ID")

# Intersect
arcpy.Intersect_analysis(["layer1.shp", "layer2.shp"], "intersection.shp")

# Clip
arcpy.Clip_analysis("input.shp", "clip_boundary.shp", "output.shp")

# Select by location
arcpy.SelectLayerByLocation_management("points_layer", "HAVE_THEIR_CENTER_IN",
                                      "polygon_layer")

# Feature to raster
arcpy.FeatureToRaster_conversion("landuse.shp", "LU_CODE", "landuse.tif", 10)

ArcGIS Pro Notebooks

# ArcGIS Pro Jupyter Notebook
import arcpy
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Use current project's map
aprx = arcpy.mp.ArcGISProject("CURRENT")
m = aprx.listMaps()[0]

# Get layer
layer = m.listLayers("Parcels")[0]

# Export to spatial dataframe
sdf = pd.DataFrame.spatial.from_layer(layer)

# Plot
sdf.plot(column='VALUE', cmap='YlOrRd', legend=True)
plt.show()

# Geocode addresses
locator = "C:/data/locators/composite.locator"
results = arcpy.geocoding.GeocodeAddresses(
    "addresses.csv", locator, "Address Address",
    None, "geocoded_results.gdb"
)

GRASS GIS

Python API for GRASS

import grass.script as gscript
import grass.script.array as garray

# Initialize GRASS session
gscript.run_command('g.gisenv', set='GISDBASE=/grassdata')
gscript.run_command('g.gisenv', set='LOCATION_NAME=nc_spm_08')
gscript.run_command('g.gisenv', set='MAPSET=user1')

# Import raster
gscript.run_command('r.in.gdal', input='elevation.tif', output='elevation')

# Import vector
gscript.run_command('v.in.ogr', input='roads.shp', output='roads')

# Get raster info
info = gscript.raster_info('elevation')
print(info)

# Slope analysis
gscript.run_command('r.slope.aspect', elevation='elevation',
                    slope='slope', aspect='aspect')

# Buffer
gscript.run_command('v.buffer', input='roads', output='roads_buffer',
                    distance=100)

# Overlay
gscript.run_command('v.overlay', ainput='zones', binput='roads',
                    operator='and', output='zones_roads')

# Calculate statistics
stats = gscript.parse_command('r.univar', map='elevation', flags='g')

SAGA GIS

Using SAGA via Command Line

import subprocess
import os

# SAGA path
saga_cmd = "/usr/local/saga/saga_cmd"

# Grid Calculus
def saga_grid_calculus(input1, input2, output, formula):
    cmd = [
        saga_cmd, "grid_calculus", "GridCalculator",
        f"-GRIDS={input1};{input2}",
        f"-RESULT={output}",
        f"-FORMULA={formula}"
    ]
    subprocess.run(cmd)

# Slope analysis
def saga_slope(dem, output_slope):
    cmd = [
        saga_cmd, "ta_morphometry", "SlopeAspectCurvature",
        f"-ELEVATION={dem}",
        f"-SLOPE={output_slope}"
    ]
    subprocess.run(cmd)

# Morphometric features
def saga_morphometry(dem):
    cmd = [
        saga_cmd, "ta_morphometry", "MorphometricFeatures",
        f"-DEM={dem}",
        f"-SLOPE=slope.sgrd",
        f"-ASPECT=aspect.sgrd",
        f"-CURVATURE=curvature.sgrd"
    ]
    subprocess.run(cmd)

# Channel network
def saga_channels(dem, threshold=1000):
    cmd = [
        saga_cmd, "ta_channels", "ChannelNetworkAndDrainageBasins",
        f"-ELEVATION={dem}",
        f"-CHANNELS=channels.shp",
        f"-BASINS=basins.shp",
        f"-THRESHOLD={threshold}"
    ]
    subprocess.run(cmd)

Cross-Platform Workflows

Export QGIS to ArcGIS

import geopandas as gpd

# Read data processed in QGIS
gdf = gpd.read_file('qgis_output.geojson')

# Ensure CRS
gdf = gdf.to_crs('EPSG:32633')

# Export for ArcGIS (File Geodatabase)
gdf.to_file('arcgis_input.gpkg', driver='GPKG')
# ArcGIS can read GPKG directly

# Or export to shapefile
gdf.to_file('arcgis_input.shp')

Batch Processing

import geopandas as gpd
from pathlib import Path

# Process multiple files
input_dir = Path('input')
output_dir = Path('output')

for shp in input_dir.glob('*.shp'):
    gdf = gpd.read_file(shp)

    # Process
    gdf['area'] = gdf.geometry.area
    gdf['buffered'] = gdf.geometry.buffer(100)

    # Export for various platforms
    basename = shp.stem
    gdf.to_file(output_dir / f'{basename}_qgis.geojson')
    gdf.to_file(output_dir / f'{basename}_arcgis.shp')

For more GIS-specific examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Industry Applications

Industry Applications

Real-world geospatial workflows across industries: urban planning, disaster management, utilities, and more.

Urban Planning

Land Use Classification

def classify_urban_land_use(sentinel2_path, training_data_path):
    """
    Urban land use classification workflow.
    Classes: Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Green Space, Water
    """
    from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
    import geopandas as gpd
    import rasterio

    # 1. Load training data
    training = gpd.read_file(training_data_path)

    # 2. Extract spectral and textural features
    features = extract_features(sentinel2_path, training)

    # 3. Train classifier
    rf = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, max_depth=20)
    rf.fit(features['X'], features['y'])

    # 4. Classify full image
    classified = classify_image(sentinel2_path, rf)

    # 5. Post-processing
    cleaned = remove_small_objects(classified, min_size=100)
    smoothed = majority_filter(cleaned, size=3)

    # 6. Calculate statistics
    stats = calculate_class_statistics(cleaned)

    return cleaned, stats

def extract_features(image_path, training_gdf):
    """Extract spectral and textural features."""
    with rasterio.open(image_path) as src:
        image = src.read()
        profile = src.profile

    # Spectral features
    features = {
        'NDVI': (image[7] - image[3]) / (image[7] + image[3] + 1e-8),
        'NDWI': (image[2] - image[7]) / (image[2] + image[7] + 1e-8),
        'NDBI': (image[10] - image[7]) / (image[10] + image[7] + 1e-8),
        'UI': (image[10] + image[3]) / (image[7] + image[2] + 1e-8)  # Urban Index
    }

    # Textural features (GLCM)
    from skimage.feature import graycomatrix, graycoprops

    textures = {}
    for band_idx in [3, 7, 10]:  # Red, NIR, SWIR
        band = image[band_idx]
        band_8bit = ((band - band.min()) / (band.max() - band.min()) * 255).astype(np.uint8)

        glcm = graycomatrix(band_8bit, distances=[1], angles=[0], levels=256, symmetric=True)
        contrast = graycoprops(glcm, 'contrast')[0, 0]
        homogeneity = graycoprops(glcm, 'homogeneity')[0, 0]

        textures[f'contrast_{band_idx}'] = contrast
        textures[f'homogeneity_{band_idx}'] = homogeneity

    # Combine all features
    # ... (implementation)

    return features

Population Estimation

def dasymetric_population(population_raster, land_use_classified):
    """
    Dasymetric population redistribution.
    """
    # 1. Identify inhabitable areas
    inhabitable_mask = (
        (land_use_classified != 0) &  # Water
        (land_use_classified != 4) &  # Industrial
        (land_use_classified != 5)    # Roads
    )

    # 2. Assign weights by land use type
    weights = np.zeros_like(land_use_classified, dtype=float)
    weights[land_use_classified == 1] = 1.0  # Residential
    weights[land_use_classified == 2] = 0.3  # Commercial
    weights[land_use_classified == 3] = 0.5  # Green Space

    # 3. Calculate weighting layer
    weighting_layer = weights * inhabitable_mask
    total_weight = np.sum(weighting_layer)

    # 4. Redistribute population
    total_population = np.sum(population_raster)
    redistributed = population_raster * (weighting_layer / total_weight) * total_population

    return redistributed

Disaster Management

Flood Risk Assessment

def flood_risk_assessment(dem_path, river_path, return_period_years=100):
    """
    Comprehensive flood risk assessment.
    """

    # 1. Hydrological modeling
    flow_accumulation = calculate_flow_accumulation(dem_path)
    flow_direction = calculate_flow_direction(dem_path)
    watershed = delineate_watershed(dem_path, flow_direction)

    # 2. Flood extent estimation
    flood_depth = estimate_flood_extent(dem_path, river_path, return_period_years)

    # 3. Exposure analysis
    settlements = gpd.read_file('settlements.shp')
    roads = gpd.read_file('roads.shp')
    infrastructure = gpd.read_file('infrastructure.shp')

    exposed_settlements = gpd.clip(settlements, flood_extent_polygon)
    exposed_roads = gpd.clip(roads, flood_extent_polygon)

    # 4. Vulnerability assessment
    vulnerability = assess_vulnerability(exposed_settlements)

    # 5. Risk calculation
    risk = flood_depth * vulnerability  # Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability

    # 6. Generate risk maps
    create_risk_map(risk, settlements, output_path='flood_risk.tif')

    return {
        'flood_extent': flood_extent_polygon,
        'exposed_population': calculate_exposed_population(exposed_settlements),
        'risk_zones': risk
    }

def estimate_flood_extent(dem_path, river_path, return_period):
    """
    Estimate flood extent using Manning's equation and hydraulic modeling.
    """
    # 1. Get river cross-section
    # 2. Calculate discharge for return period
    # 3. Apply Manning's equation for water depth
    # 4. Create flood raster

    # Simplified: flat water level
    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src:
        dem = src.read(1)
        profile = src.profile

    # Water level based on return period
    water_levels = {10: 5, 50: 8, 100: 10, 500: 12}
    water_level = water_levels.get(return_period, 10)

    # Flood extent
    flood_extent = dem < water_level

    return flood_extent

Wildfire Risk Modeling

def wildfire_risk_assessment(vegetation_path, dem_path, weather_data, infrastructure_path):
    """
    Wildfire risk assessment combining multiple factors.
    """

    # 1. Fuel load (from vegetation)
    with rasterio.open(vegetation_path) as src:
        vegetation = src.read(1)

    # Fuel types: 0=No fuel, 1=Low, 2=Medium, 3=High
    fuel_load = vegetation.map_classes({1: 0.2, 2: 0.5, 3: 0.8, 4: 1.0})

    # 2. Slope (fires spread faster uphill)
    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src:
        dem = src.read(1)

    slope = calculate_slope(dem)
    slope_factor = 1 + (slope / 90) * 0.5  # Up to 50% increase

    # 3. Wind influence
    wind_speed = weather_data['wind_speed']
    wind_direction = weather_data['wind_direction']
    wind_factor = 1 + (wind_speed / 50) * 0.3

    # 4. Vegetation dryness (from NDWI anomaly)
    dryness = calculate_vegetation_dryness(vegetation_path)
    dryness_factor = 1 + dryness * 0.4

    # 5. Combine factors
    risk = fuel_load * slope_factor * wind_factor * dryness_factor

    # 6. Identify assets at risk
    infrastructure = gpd.read_file(infrastructure_path)
    risk_at_infrastructure = extract_raster_values_at_points(risk, infrastructure)

    infrastructure['risk_level'] = risk_at_infrastructure
    high_risk_assets = infrastructure[infrastructure['risk_level'] > 0.7]

    return risk, high_risk_assets

Utilities & Infrastructure

Power Line Corridor Mapping

def power_line_corridor_analysis(power_lines_path, vegetation_height_path, buffer_distance=50):
    """
    Analyze vegetation encroachment on power line corridors.
    """

    # 1. Load power lines
    power_lines = gpd.read_file(power_lines_path)

    # 2. Create corridor buffer
    corridor = power_lines.buffer(buffer_distance)

    # 3. Load vegetation height
    with rasterio.open(vegetation_height_path) as src:
        veg_height = src.read(1)
        profile = src.profile

    # 4. Extract vegetation height within corridor
    veg_within_corridor = rasterio.mask.mask(veg_height, corridor.geometry, crop=True)[0]

    # 5. Identify encroachment (vegetation > safe height)
    safe_height = 10  # meters
    encroachment = veg_within_corridor > safe_height

    # 6. Classify risk zones
    high_risk = encroachment & (veg_within_corridor > safe_height * 1.5)
    medium_risk = encroachment & ~high_risk

    # 7. Generate maintenance priority map
    priority = np.zeros_like(veg_within_corridor)
    priority[high_risk] = 3  # Urgent
    priority[medium_risk] = 2  # Monitor
    priority[~encroachment] = 1  # Clear

    # 8. Create work order points
    from scipy import ndimage
    labeled, num_features = ndimage.label(high_risk)

    work_orders = []
    for i in range(1, num_features + 1):
        mask = labeled == i
        centroid = ndimage.center_of_mass(mask)
        work_orders.append({
            'location': centroid,
            'area_ha': np.sum(mask) * 0.0001,  # Assuming 1m resolution
            'priority': 'Urgent'
        })

    return priority, work_orders

Pipeline Route Optimization

def optimize_pipeline_route(origin, destination, constraints_path, cost_surface_path):
    """
    Optimize pipeline route using least-cost path analysis.
    """

    # 1. Load cost surface
    with rasterio.open(cost_surface_path) as src:
        cost = src.read(1)
        profile = src.profile

    # 2. Apply constraints
    constraints = gpd.read_file(constraints_path)
    no_go_zones = constraints[constraints['type'] == 'no_go']

    # Set very high cost for no-go zones
    for _, zone in no_go_zones.iterrows():
        mask = rasterize_features(zone.geometry, profile['shape'])
        cost[mask > 0] = 999999

    # 3. Least-cost path (Dijkstra)
    from scipy.sparse import csr_matrix
    from scipy.sparse.csgraph import shortest_path

    # Convert to graph (8-connected)
    graph = create_graph_from_raster(cost)

    # Origin and destination nodes
    orig_node = coord_to_node(origin, profile)
    dest_node = coord_to_node(destination, profile)

    # Find path
    _, predecessors = shortest_path(csgraph=graph,
                                   directed=True,
                                   indices=orig_node,
                                   return_predecessors=True)

    # Reconstruct path
    path = reconstruct_path(predecessors, dest_node)

    # 4. Convert path to coordinates
    route_coords = [node_to_coord(node, profile) for node in path]
    route = LineString(route_coords)

    return route

def create_graph_from_raster(cost_raster):
    """Create graph from cost raster for least-cost path."""
    # 8-connected neighbor costs
    # Implementation depends on library choice
    pass

Transportation

Traffic Analysis

def traffic_analysis(roads_gdf, traffic_counts_path):
    """
    Analyze traffic patterns and congestion.
    """

    # 1. Load traffic count data
    counts = gpd.read_file(traffic_counts_path)

    # 2. Interpolate traffic to all roads
    import networkx as nx

    # Create road network
    G = nx.Graph()
    for _, road in roads_gdf.iterrows():
        coords = list(road.geometry.coords)
        for i in range(len(coords) - 1):
            G.add_edge(coords[i], coords[i+1],
                      length=road.geometry.length,
                      road_id=road.id)

    # 3. Spatial interpolation of counts
    from sklearn.neighbors import KNeighborsRegressor

    count_coords = np.array([[p.x, p.y] for p in counts.geometry])
    count_values = counts['AADT'].values

    knn = KNeighborsRegressor(n_neighbors=5, weights='distance')
    knn.fit(count_coords, count_values)

    # 4. Predict traffic for all road segments
    all_coords = np.array([[n[0], n[1]] for n in G.nodes()])
    predicted_traffic = knn.predict(all_coords)

    # 5. Identify congested segments
    for i, (u, v) in enumerate(G.edges()):
        avg_traffic = (predicted_traffic[list(G.nodes()).index(u)] +
                      predicted_traffic[list(G.nodes()).index(v)]) / 2
        capacity = G[u][v]['capacity']  # Need capacity data

        G[u][v]['v_c_ratio'] = avg_traffic / capacity

    # 6. Congestion hotspots
    congested_edges = [(u, v) for u, v, d in G.edges(data=True)
                      if d.get('v_c_ratio', 0) > 0.9]

    return G, congested_edges

Transit Service Area Analysis

def transit_service_area(stops_gdf, max_walk_distance=800, max_time=30):
    """
    Calculate transit service area considering walk distance and travel time.
    """

    # 1. Walkable area around stops
    walk_buffer = stops_gdf.buffer(max_walk_distance)

    # 2. Load road network for walk time
    roads = gpd.read_file('roads.shp')
    G = osmnx.graph_from_gdf(roads)

    # 3. For each stop, calculate accessible area within walk time
    service_areas = []

    for _, stop in stops_gdf.iterrows():
        # Find nearest node
        stop_node = ox.distance.nearest_nodes(G, stop.geometry.x, stop.geometry.y)

        # Get subgraph within walk time
        walk_speed = 5 / 3.6  # km/h to m/s
        max_nodes = int(max_time * 60 * walk_speed / 20)  # Assuming ~20m per edge

        subgraph = nx.ego_graph(G, stop_node, radius=max_nodes)

        # Create polygon from reachable nodes
        reachable_nodes = ox.graph_to_gdfs(subgraph, edges=False)
        service_area = reachable_nodes.geometry.unary_union.convex_hull

        service_areas.append({
            'stop_id': stop.stop_id,
            'service_area': service_area,
            'area_km2': service_area.area / 1e6
        })

    return service_areas

For more industry-specific workflows, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Machine Learning

Machine Learning for Geospatial Data

Guide to ML and deep learning applications for remote sensing and spatial analysis.

Traditional Machine Learning

Random Forest for Land Cover

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.metrics import classification_report, confusion_matrix
import rasterio
from rasterio.features import rasterize
import geopandas as gpd
import numpy as np

def train_random_forest_classifier(raster_path, training_gdf):
    """Train Random Forest for image classification."""

    # Load imagery
    with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
        image = src.read()
        profile = src.profile
        transform = src.transform

    # Extract training data
    X, y = [], []

    for _, row in training_gdf.iterrows():
        mask = rasterize(
            [(row.geometry, 1)],
            out_shape=(profile['height'], profile['width']),
            transform=transform,
            fill=0,
            dtype=np.uint8
        )
        pixels = image[:, mask > 0].T
        X.extend(pixels)
        y.extend([row['class_id']] * len(pixels))

    X = np.array(X)
    y = np.array(y)

    # Split data
    X_train, X_val, y_train, y_val = train_test_split(
        X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42, stratify=y
    )

    # Train model
    rf = RandomForestClassifier(
        n_estimators=100,
        max_depth=20,
        min_samples_split=10,
        min_samples_leaf=4,
        class_weight='balanced',
        n_jobs=-1,
        random_state=42
    )
    rf.fit(X_train, y_train)

    # Validate
    y_pred = rf.predict(X_val)
    print("Classification Report:")
    print(classification_report(y_val, y_pred))

    # Feature importance
    feature_names = [f'Band_{i}' for i in range(X.shape[1])]
    importances = pd.DataFrame({
        'feature': feature_names,
        'importance': rf.feature_importances_
    }).sort_values('importance', ascending=False)

    print("\nFeature Importance:")
    print(importances)

    return rf

# Classify full image
def classify_image(model, image_path, output_path):
    with rasterio.open(image_path) as src:
        image = src.read()
        profile = src.profile

    image_reshaped = image.reshape(image.shape[0], -1).T
    prediction = model.predict(image_reshaped)
    prediction = prediction.reshape(image.shape[1], image.shape[2])

    profile.update(dtype=rasterio.uint8, count=1)
    with rasterio.open(output_path, 'w', **profile) as dst:
        dst.write(prediction.astype(rasterio.uint8), 1)

Support Vector Machine

from sklearn.svm import SVC
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler

def svm_classifier(X_train, y_train):
    """SVM classifier for remote sensing."""

    # Scale features
    scaler = StandardScaler()
    X_train_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X_train)

    # Train SVM
    svm = SVC(
        kernel='rbf',
        C=100,
        gamma='scale',
        class_weight='balanced',
        probability=True
    )
    svm.fit(X_train_scaled, y_train)

    return svm, scaler

# Multi-class classification
def multiclass_svm(X_train, y_train):
    from sklearn.multiclass import OneVsRestClassifier

    scaler = StandardScaler()
    X_train_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X_train)

    svm_ovr = OneVsRestClassifier(
        SVC(kernel='rbf', C=10, probability=True),
        n_jobs=-1
    )
    svm_ovr.fit(X_train_scaled, y_train)

    return svm_ovr, scaler

Deep Learning

CNN with TorchGeo

import torch
import torch.nn as nn
import torchgeo.datasets as datasets
import torchgeo.models as models
from torch.utils.data import DataLoader

# Define CNN
class LandCoverCNN(nn.Module):
    def __init__(self, in_channels=12, num_classes=10):
        super().__init__()
        self.encoder = nn.Sequential(
            nn.Conv2d(in_channels, 64, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(64),
            nn.ReLU(),
            nn.MaxPool2d(2),

            nn.Conv2d(64, 128, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(128),
            nn.ReLU(),
            nn.MaxPool2d(2),

            nn.Conv2d(128, 256, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(256),
            nn.ReLU(),
            nn.MaxPool2d(2),
        )

        self.decoder = nn.Sequential(
            nn.ConvTranspose2d(256, 128, 2, stride=2),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(128),
            nn.ReLU(),

            nn.ConvTranspose2d(128, 64, 2, stride=2),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(64),
            nn.ReLU(),

            nn.ConvTranspose2d(64, num_classes, 2, stride=2),
        )

    def forward(self, x):
        x = self.encoder(x)
        x = self.decoder(x)
        return x

# Training
def train_model(train_loader, val_loader, num_epochs=50):
    device = torch.device('cuda' if torch.cuda.is_available() else 'cpu')
    model = LandCoverCNN().to(device)

    criterion = nn.CrossEntropyLoss()
    optimizer = torch.optim.Adam(model.parameters(), lr=0.001)

    for epoch in range(num_epochs):
        model.train()
        train_loss = 0

        for images, labels in train_loader:
            images, labels = images.to(device), labels.to(device)

            optimizer.zero_grad()
            outputs = model(images)
            loss = criterion(outputs, labels)
            loss.backward()
            optimizer.step()

            train_loss += loss.item()

        # Validation
        model.eval()
        val_loss = 0
        with torch.no_grad():
            for images, labels in val_loader:
                images, labels = images.to(device), labels.to(device)
                outputs = model(images)
                loss = criterion(outputs, labels)
                val_loss += loss.item()

        print(f'Epoch {epoch+1}/{num_epochs}, Train Loss: {train_loss:.4f}, Val Loss: {val_loss:.4f}')

    return model

U-Net for Semantic Segmentation

class UNet(nn.Module):
    def __init__(self, in_channels=4, num_classes=5):
        super().__init__()

        # Encoder
        self.enc1 = self.conv_block(in_channels, 64)
        self.enc2 = self.conv_block(64, 128)
        self.enc3 = self.conv_block(128, 256)
        self.enc4 = self.conv_block(256, 512)

        # Bottleneck
        self.bottleneck = self.conv_block(512, 1024)

        # Decoder
        self.up1 = nn.ConvTranspose2d(1024, 512, 2, stride=2)
        self.dec1 = self.conv_block(1024, 512)

        self.up2 = nn.ConvTranspose2d(512, 256, 2, stride=2)
        self.dec2 = self.conv_block(512, 256)

        self.up3 = nn.ConvTranspose2d(256, 128, 2, stride=2)
        self.dec3 = self.conv_block(256, 128)

        self.up4 = nn.ConvTranspose2d(128, 64, 2, stride=2)
        self.dec4 = self.conv_block(128, 64)

        # Final layer
        self.final = nn.Conv2d(64, num_classes, 1)

    def conv_block(self, in_ch, out_ch):
        return nn.Sequential(
            nn.Conv2d(in_ch, out_ch, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(out_ch),
            nn.ReLU(inplace=True),
            nn.Conv2d(out_ch, out_ch, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(out_ch),
            nn.ReLU(inplace=True)
        )

    def forward(self, x):
        # Encoder
        e1 = self.enc1(x)
        e2 = self.enc2(F.max_pool2d(e1, 2))
        e3 = self.enc3(F.max_pool2d(e2, 2))
        e4 = self.enc4(F.max_pool2d(e3, 2))

        # Bottleneck
        b = self.bottleneck(F.max_pool2d(e4, 2))

        # Decoder with skip connections
        d1 = self.dec1(torch.cat([self.up1(b), e4], dim=1))
        d2 = self.dec2(torch.cat([self.up2(d1), e3], dim=1))
        d3 = self.dec3(torch.cat([self.up3(d2), e2], dim=1))
        d4 = self.dec4(torch.cat([self.up4(d3), e1], dim=1))

        return self.final(d4)

Change Detection with Siamese Network

class SiameseNetwork(nn.Module):
    """Siamese network for change detection."""

    def __init__(self):
        super().__init__()
        self.feature_extractor = nn.Sequential(
            nn.Conv2d(3, 32, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(32),
            nn.ReLU(),
            nn.MaxPool2d(2),

            nn.Conv2d(32, 64, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(64),
            nn.ReLU(),
            nn.MaxPool2d(2),

            nn.Conv2d(64, 128, 3, padding=1),
            nn.BatchNorm2d(128),
            nn.ReLU(),
        )

        self.classifier = nn.Sequential(
            nn.Conv2d(256, 128, 3, padding=1),
            nn.ReLU(),
            nn.Conv2d(128, 64, 3, padding=1),
            nn.ReLU(),
            nn.Conv2d(64, 2, 1),  # Binary: change / no change
        )

    def forward(self, x1, x2):
        f1 = self.feature_extractor(x1)
        f2 = self.feature_extractor(x2)

        # Concatenate features
        diff = torch.abs(f1 - f2)
        combined = torch.cat([f1, f2, diff], dim=1)

        return self.classifier(combined)

Graph Neural Networks

PyTorch Geometric for Spatial Data

import torch
from torch_geometric.data import Data
from torch_geometric.nn import GCNConv

# Create spatial graph
def create_spatial_graph(points_gdf, k_neighbors=5):
    """Create graph from point data using k-NN."""

    from sklearn.neighbors import NearestNeighbors

    coords = np.array([[p.x, p.y] for p in points_gdf.geometry])

    # Find k-nearest neighbors
    nbrs = NearestNeighbors(n_neighbors=k_neighbors).fit(coords)
    distances, indices = nbrs.kneighbors(coords)

    # Create edge index
    edge_index = []
    for i, neighbors in enumerate(indices):
        for j in neighbors:
            edge_index.append([i, j])

    edge_index = torch.tensor(edge_index, dtype=torch.long).t().contiguous()

    # Node features
    features = points_gdf.drop('geometry', axis=1).values
    x = torch.tensor(features, dtype=torch.float)

    return Data(x=x, edge_index=edge_index)

# GCN for spatial prediction
class SpatialGCN(torch.nn.Module):
    def __init__(self, num_features, hidden_channels=64):
        super().__init__()
        self.conv1 = GCNConv(num_features, hidden_channels)
        self.conv2 = GCNConv(hidden_channels, hidden_channels)
        self.conv3 = GCNConv(hidden_channels, 1)

    def forward(self, data):
        x, edge_index = data.x, data.edge_index
        x = self.conv1(x, edge_index).relu()
        x = F.dropout(x, p=0.5, training=self.training)
        x = self.conv2(x, edge_index).relu()
        x = self.conv3(x, edge_index)
        return x

Explainable AI (XAI) for Geospatial

SHAP for Model Interpretation

import shap
import numpy as np

def explain_model(model, X, feature_names):
    """Explain model predictions using SHAP."""

    # Create explainer
    explainer = shap.Explainer(model, X)

    # Calculate SHAP values
    shap_values = explainer(X)

    # Summary plot
    shap.summary_plot(shap_values, X, feature_names=feature_names)

    # Dependence plot for important features
    for i in range(X.shape[1]):
        shap.dependence_plot(i, shap_values, X, feature_names=feature_names)

    return shap_values

# Spatial SHAP (accounting for spatial autocorrelation)
def spatial_shap(model, X, coordinates):
    """Spatial explanation considering neighborhood effects."""

    # Compute SHAP values
    explainer = shap.Explainer(model, X)
    shap_values = explainer(X)

    # Spatial aggregation
    shap_spatial = {}
    for i, coord in enumerate(coordinates):
        # Find neighbors
        neighbors = find_neighbors(coord, coordinates, radius=1000)

        # Aggregate SHAP values for neighborhood
        neighbor_shap = shap_values.values[neighbors]
        shap_spatial[i] = np.mean(neighbor_shap, axis=0)

    return shap_spatial

Attention Maps for CNNs

import cv2
import torch
import torch.nn.functional as F

def generate_attention_map(model, image_tensor, target_layer):
    """Generate attention map using Grad-CAM."""

    # Forward pass
    model.eval()
    output = model(image_tensor)

    # Backward pass
    model.zero_grad()
    output[0, torch.argmax(output)].backward()

    # Get gradients
    gradients = model.get_gradient(target_layer)

    # Global average pooling
    weights = torch.mean(gradients, axis=(2, 3), keepdim=True)

    # Weighted combination of activation maps
    activations = model.get_activation(target_layer)
    attention = torch.sum(weights * activations, axis=1, keepdim=True)

    # ReLU and normalize
    attention = F.relu(attention)
    attention = F.interpolate(attention, size=image_tensor.shape[2:],
                              mode='bilinear', align_corners=False)
    attention = (attention - attention.min()) / (attention.max() - attention.min())

    return attention.squeeze().cpu().numpy()

For more ML examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Programming Languages

Multi-Language Geospatial Programming

Geospatial programming across 8 languages: R, Julia, JavaScript, C++, Java, Go, Rust, and Python.

R Geospatial

sf (Simple Features)

library(sf)
library(dplyr)
library(ggplot2)

# Read spatial data
roads <- st_read("roads.shp")
zones <- st_read("zones.geojson")

# Basic operations
st_crs(roads)  # Check CRS
roads_utm <- st_transform(roads, 32610)  # Reproject

# Geometric operations
roads_buffer <- st_buffer(roads, dist = 100)  # Buffer
roads_simplify <- st_simplify(roads, tol = 0.0001)  # Simplify
roads_centroid <- st_centroid(roads)  # Centroid

# Spatial joins
joined <- st_join(roads, zones, join = st_intersects)

# Overlay
intersection <- st_intersection(roads, zones)

# Plot
ggplot() +
  geom_sf(data = zones, fill = NA) +
  geom_sf(data = roads, color = "blue") +
  theme_minimal()

# Calculate area
zones$area <- st_area(zones)  # In CRS units
zones$area_km2 <- st_area(zones) / 1e6  # Convert to km2

terra (Raster Processing)

library(terra)

# Load raster
r <- rast("elevation.tif")

# Basic info
r
ext(r)  # Extent
crs(r)  # CRS
res(r)  # Resolution

# Raster calculations
slope <- terrain(r, v = "slope")
aspect <- terrain(r, v = "aspect")

# Multi-raster operations
ndvi <- (s2[[8]] - s2[[4]]) / (s2[[8]] + s2[[4]])

# Focal operations
focal_mean <- focal(r, w = matrix(1, 3, 3), fun = mean)
focal_sd <- focal(r, w = matrix(1, 5, 5), fun = sd)

# Zonal statistics
zones <- vect("zones.shp")
zonal_mean <- zonal(r, zones, fun = mean)

# Extract values at points
points <- vect("points.shp")
values <- extract(r, points)

# Write output
writeRaster(slope, "slope.tif", overwrite = TRUE)

R Workflows

# Complete land cover classification
library(sf)
library(terra)
library(randomForest)
library(caret)

# 1. Load data
training <- st_read("training.shp")
s2 <- rast("sentinel2.tif")

# 2. Extract training data
training_points <- st_centroid(training)
values <- extract(s2, training_points)

# 3. Combine with labels
df <- data.frame(values)
df$class <- as.factor(training$class_id)

# 4. Train model
set.seed(42)
train_index <- createDataPartition(df$class, p = 0.7, list = FALSE)
train_data <- df[train_index, ]
test_data <- df[-train_index, ]

rf_model <- randomForest(class ~ ., data = train_data, ntree = 100)

# 5. Predict
predicted <- predict(s2, model = rf_model)

# 6. Accuracy
conf_matrix <- confusionMatrix(predict(rf_model, test_data), test_data$class)
print(conf_matrix)

# 7. Export
writeRaster(predicted, "classified.tif", overwrite = TRUE)

Julia Geospatial

ArchGDAL.jl

using ArchGDAL
using GeoInterface

# Register drivers
ArchGDAL.registerdrivers() do
    # Read shapefile
    data = ArchGDAL.read("countries.shp") do dataset
        layer = dataset[1]
        features = []
        for feature in layer
            geom = ArchGDAL.getgeom(feature)
            push!(features, geom)
        end
        features
    end
end

# Create geometries
using GeoInterface

point = GeoInterface.Point(-122.4, 37.7)
polygon = GeoInterface.Polygon([GeoInterface.LinearRing([
    GeoInterface.Point(-122.5, 37.5),
    GeoInterface.Point(-122.3, 37.5),
    GeoInterface.Point(-122.3, 37.8),
    GeoInterface.Point(-122.5, 37.8),
    GeoInterface.Point(-122.5, 37.5)
])])

# Geometric operations
buffered = GeoInterface.buffer(point, 1000)
intersection = GeoInterface.intersection(poly1, poly2)

GeoStats.jl

using GeoStats
using GeoStatsBase
using Variography

# Load point data
data = georef((value = [1.0, 2.0, 3.0],),
              [Point(0.0, 0.0), Point(1.0, 0.0), Point(0.5, 1.0)])

# Experimental variogram
γ = variogram(EmpiricalVariogram, data, :value, maxlag = 1.0)

# Fit theoretical variogram
γfit = fit(EmpiricalVariogram, γ, SphericalVariogram)

# Ordinary kriging
problem = OrdinaryKriging(data, :value, γfit)
solution = solve(problem)

# Simulate
simulation = SimulationProblem(data, :value, SphericalVariogram, 100)
result = solve(simulation)

JavaScript (Node.js & Browser)

Turf.js (Browser/Node)

// npm install @turf/turf
const turf = require('@turf/turf');

// Create features
const pt1 = turf.point([-122.4, 37.7]);
const pt2 = turf.point([-122.3, 37.8]);

// Distance (in kilometers)
const distance = turf.distance(pt1, pt2, { units: 'kilometers' });

// Buffer
const buffered = turf.buffer(pt1, 5, { units: 'kilometers' });

// Bounding box
const bbox = turf.bbox(buffered);

// Along a line
const line = turf.lineString([[-122.4, 37.7], [-122.3, 37.8]]);
const along = turf.along(line, 2, { units: 'kilometers' });

// Within
const points = turf.points([
  [-122.4, 37.7],
  [-122.35, 37.75],
  [-122.3, 37.8]
]);
const polygon = turf.polygon([[[-122.4, 37.7], [-122.3, 37.7], [-122.3, 37.8], [-122.4, 37.8], [-122.4, 37.7]]]);
const ptsWithin = turf.pointsWithinPolygon(points, polygon);

// Nearest point
const nearest = turf.nearestPoint(pt1, points);

// Area
const area = turf.area(polygon); // square meters

Leaflet (Web Mapping)

// Initialize map
const map = L.map('map').setView([37.7, -122.4], 13);

// Add tile layer
L.tileLayer('https://{s}.tile.openstreetmap.org/{z}/{x}/{y}.png', {
  attribution: '© OpenStreetMap contributors'
}).addTo(map);

// Add GeoJSON layer
fetch('data.geojson')
  .then(response => response.json())
  .then(data => {
    L.geoJSON(data, {
      style: function(feature) {
        return { color: feature.properties.color };
      },
      onEachFeature: function(feature, layer) {
        layer.bindPopup(feature.properties.name);
      }
    }).addTo(map);
  });

// Add markers
const marker = L.marker([37.7, -122.4]).addTo(map);
marker.bindPopup("Hello!").openPopup();

// Draw circles
const circle = L.circle([37.7, -122.4], {
  color: 'red',
  fillColor: '#f03',
  fillOpacity: 0.5,
  radius: 500
}).addTo(map);

C++ Geospatial

GDAL C++ API

#include "gdal_priv.h"
#include "ogr_api.h"
#include "ogr_spatialref.h"

// Open raster
GDALDataset *poDataset = (GDALDataset *) GDALOpen("input.tif", GA_ReadOnly);

// Get band
GDALRasterBand *poBand = poDataset->GetRasterBand(1);

// Read data
int nXSize = poBand->GetXSize();
int nYSize = poBand->GetYSize();
float *pafScanline = (float *) CPLMalloc(sizeof(float) * nXSize);
poBand->RasterIO(GF_Read, 0, 0, nXSize, 1,
                 pafScanline, nXSize, 1, GDT_Float32, 0, 0);

// Vector data
GDALDataset *poDS = (GDALDataset *) GDALOpenEx("roads.shp",
    GDAL_OF_VECTOR, NULL, NULL, NULL);
OGRLayer *poLayer = poDS->GetLayer(0);

OGRFeature *poFeature;
poLayer->ResetReading();
while ((poFeature = poLayer->GetNextFeature()) != NULL) {
    OGRGeometry *poGeometry = poFeature->GetGeometryRef();
    // Process geometry
    OGRFeature::DestroyFeature(poFeature);
}

GDALClose(poDS);

Java Geospatial

GeoTools

import org.geotools.data.FileDataStore;
import org.geotools.data.FileDataStoreFinder;
import org.geotools.data.simple.SimpleFeatureCollection;
import org.geotools.data.simple.SimpleFeatureIterator;
import org.geotools.data.simple.SimpleFeatureSource;
import org.geotools.geometry.jts.JTS;
import org.geotools.referencing.CRS;
import org.opengis.feature.simple.SimpleFeature;
import org.opengis.referencing.crs.CoordinateReferenceSystem;

import org.locationtech.jts.geom.Coordinate;
import org.locationtech.jts.geom.GeometryFactory;
import org.locationtech.jts.geom.Point;

// Load shapefile
File file = new File("roads.shp");
FileDataStore store = FileDataStoreFinder.getDataStore(file);
SimpleFeatureSource featureSource = store.getFeatureSource();

// Read features
SimpleFeatureCollection collection = featureSource.getFeatures();
try (SimpleFeatureIterator iterator = collection.features()) {
    while (iterator.hasNext()) {
        SimpleFeature feature = iterator.next();
        Geometry geom = (Geometry) feature.getDefaultGeometryProperty().getValue();
        // Process geometry
    }
}

// Create point
GeometryFactory gf = new GeometryFactory();
Point point = gf.createPoint(new Coordinate(-122.4, 37.7));

// Reproject
CoordinateReferenceSystem sourceCRS = CRS.decode("EPSG:4326");
CoordinateReferenceSystem targetCRS = CRS.decode("EPSG:32633");
MathTransform transform = CRS.findMathTransform(sourceCRS, targetCRS);
Geometry reprojected = JTS.transform(point, transform);

Go Geospatial

Simple Features Go

package main

import (
    "fmt"
    "github.com/paulmach/orb"
    "github.com/paulmach/orb/geojson"
    "github.com/paulmach/orb/planar"
)

func main() {
    // Create point
    point := orb.Point{122.4, 37.7}

    // Create linestring
    line := orb.LineString{
        {122.4, 37.7},
        {122.3, 37.8},
    }

    // Create polygon
    polygon := orb.Polygon{
        {{122.4, 37.7}, {122.3, 37.7}, {122.3, 37.8}, {122.4, 37.8}, {122.4, 37.7}},
    }

    // GeoJSON feature
    feature := geojson.NewFeature(polygon)
    feature.Properties["name"] = "Zone 1"

    // Distance (planar)
    distance := planar.Distance(point, orb.Point{122.3, 37.8})

    // Area
    area := planar.Area(polygon)

    fmt.Printf("Distance: %.2f meters\n", distance)
    fmt.Printf("Area: %.2f square meters\n", area)
}

For more code examples across all languages, see code-examples.md.

Rust Geospatial

GeoRust (Geographic Rust)

The Rust geospatial ecosystem includes crates for geometry operations, projections, and file I/O.

```rust // Cargo.toml dependencies: // geo = “0.28” // geo-types = “0.7” // proj = “0.27” // shapefile = “0.5”

use geo::{Coord, Point, LineString, Polygon, Geometry}; use geo::prelude::*; use proj::Proj;

fn main() -> Result<(), Box> { // Create a point let point = Point::new(-122.4_f64, 37.7_f64);

// Create a linestring
let linestring = LineString::new(vec![
    Coord { x: -122.4, y: 37.7 },
    Coord { x: -122.3, y: 37.8 },
    Coord { x: -122.2, y: 37.9 },
]);

// Create a polygon
let polygon = Polygon::new(
    LineString::new(vec![
        Coord { x: -122.4, y: 37.7 },
        Coord { x: -122.3, y:  37.7 },
        Coord { x: -122.3, y: 37.8 },
        Coord { x: -122.4, y: 37.8 },
        Coord { x: -2.4, y: 37.7 }, // Close the ring
    ]),
    vec![], // No interior rings
);

// Geometric operations
let buffered = polygon.buffer(1000.0); // Buffer in CRS units
let centroid = polygon.centroid();
let convex_hull = polygon.convex_hull();
let simplified = polygon.simplify(&1.0); // Tolerance

// Spatial relationships
let point_within = point.within(&polygon);
let line_intersects = linestring.intersects(&polygon);

// Coordinate transformation
let from = "EPSG:4326";
let to = "EPSG:32610";
let proj = Proj::new_known_crs(from, to, None)?;
let transformed = proj.convert(point)?;

println!("Point: {:?}", point);
println!("Within polygon: {}", point_within);

Ok(())

} ```

Reference: Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing Reference

Comprehensive guide to satellite data acquisition, processing, and analysis.

Satellite Missions Overview

SatelliteOperatorResolutionRevisitKey Features
Sentinel-2ESA10-60m5 days13 bands, free access
Landsat 8/9USGS30m16 daysHistorical archive (1972+)
MODISNASA250-1000mDailyVegetation indices
PlanetScopePlanet3mDailyCommercial, high-res
WorldViewMaxar0.3mVariableVery high resolution
Sentinel-1ESA5-40m6-12 daysSAR, all-weather
EnvisatESA30m35 daysSAR (archival)

Sentinel-2 Processing

Accessing Sentinel-2 Data

import pystac_client
import planetary_computer
import odc.stac
import xarray as xr

# Search Sentinel-2 collection
catalog = pystac_client.Client.open(
    "https://planetarycomputer.microsoft.com/api/stac/v1",
    modifier=planetary_computer.sign_inplace,
)

# Define AOI and time range
bbox = [-122.5, 37.7, -122.3, 37.9]
search = catalog.search(
    collections=["sentinel-2-l2a"],
    bbox=bbox,
    datetime="2023-01-01/2023-12-31",
    query={"eo:cloud_cover": {"lt": 20}},
)

items = list(search.get_items())
print(f"Found {len(items)} items")

# Load as xarray dataset
data = odc.stac.load(
    [items[0]],
    bands=["B02", "B03", "B04", "B08", "B11"],
    crs="EPSG:32610",
    resolution=10,
)

print(data)

Calculating Spectral Indices

import numpy as np
import rasterio

def ndvi(nir, red):
    """Normalized Difference Vegetation Index"""
    return (nir - red) / (nir + red + 1e-8)

def evi(nir, red, blue):
    """Enhanced Vegetation Index"""
    return 2.5 * (nir - red) / (nir + 6*red - 7.5*blue + 1)

def savi(nir, red, L=0.5):
    """Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index"""
    return ((nir - red) / (nir + red + L)) * (1 + L)

def ndwi(green, nir):
    """Normalized Difference Water Index"""
    return (green - nir) / (green + nir + 1e-8)

def mndwi(green, swir):
    """Modified NDWI for open water"""
    return (green - swir) / (green + swir + 1e-8)

def nbr(nir, swir):
    """Normalized Burn Ratio"""
    return (nir - swir) / (nir + swir + 1e-8)

def ndbi(swir, nir):
    """Normalized Difference Built-up Index"""
    return (swir - nir) / (swir + nir + 1e-8)

# Batch processing
with rasterio.open('sentinel2.tif') as src:
    # Sentinel-2 band mapping
    B02 = src.read(1).astype(float)  # Blue (10m)
    B03 = src.read(2).astype(float)  # Green (10m)
    B04 = src.read(3).astype(float)  # Red (10m)
    B08 = src.read(4).astype(float)  # NIR (10m)
    B11 = src.read(5).astype(float)  # SWIR1 (20m, resampled)

    # Calculate indices
    NDVI = ndvi(B08, B04)
    EVI = evi(B08, B04, B02)
    SAVI = savi(B08, B04, L=0.5)
    NDWI = ndwi(B03, B08)
    NBR = nbr(B08, B11)
    NDBI = ndbi(B11, B08)

Landsat Processing

Landsat Collection 2

import ee

# Initialize Earth Engine
ee.Initialize(project='your-project')

# Landsat 8 Collection 2 Level 2
landsat = ee.ImageCollection('LANDSAT/LC08/C02/T1_L2') \
    .filterBounds(ee.Geometry.Point([-122.4, 37.7])) \
    .filterDate('2020-01-01', '2023-12-31') \
    .filter(ee.Filter.lt('CLOUD_COVER', 20))

# Apply scaling factors (Collection 2)
def apply_scale_factors(image):
    optical = image.select('SR_B.').multiply(0.0000275).add(-0.2)
    thermal = image.select('ST_B10').multiply(0.00341802).add(149.0)
    return image.addBands(optical, None, True).addBands(thermal, None, True)

landsat_scaled = landsat.map(apply_scale_factors)

# Calculate NDVI
def add_ndvi(image):
    ndvi = image.normalizedDifference(['SR_B5', 'SR_B4']).rename('NDVI')
    return image.addBands(ndvi)

landsat_ndvi = landsat_scaled.map(add_ndvi)

# Get composite
composite = landsat_ndvi.median()

Landsat Surface Temperature

def land_surface_temperature(image):
    """Calculate land surface temperature from Landsat 8."""
    # Brightness temperature
    Tb = image.select('ST_B10')

    # NDVI for emissivity
    ndvi = image.normalizedDifference(['SR_B5', 'SR_B4'])
    pv = ((ndvi - 0.2) / (0.5 - 0.2)) ** 2  # Proportion of vegetation

    # Emissivity
    em = 0.004 * pv + 0.986

    # LST in Kelvin
    lst = Tb.divide(1 + (0.00115 * Tb / 1.4388) * np.log(em))

    # Convert to Celsius
    lst_c = lst.subtract(273.15).rename('LST')

    return image.addBands(lst_c)

landsat_lst = landsat_scaled.map(land_surface_temperature)

SAR Processing (Synthetic Aperture Radar)

Sentinel-1 GRD Processing

import rasterio
from scipy.ndimage import gaussian_filter
import numpy as np

def process_sentinel1_grd(input_path, output_path):
    """Process Sentinel-1 GRD data."""
    with rasterio.open(input_path) as src:
        # Read VV and VH bands
        vv = src.read(1).astype(float)
        vh = src.read(2).astype(float)

        # Convert to decibels
        vv_db = 10 * np.log10(vv + 1e-8)
        vh_db = 10 * np.log10(vh + 1e-8)

        # Speckle filtering (Lee filter approximation)
        def lee_filter(img, size=3):
            """Simple Lee filter for speckle reduction."""
            # Local mean
            mean = gaussian_filter(img, size)
            # Local variance
            sq_mean = gaussian_filter(img**2, size)
            variance = sq_mean - mean**2
            # Noise variance
            noise_var = np.var(img) * 0.5
            # Lee filter formula
            return mean + (variance - noise_var) / (variance) * (img - mean)

        vv_filtered = lee_filter(vv_db)
        vh_filtered = lee_filter(vh_db)

        # Calculate ratio
        ratio = vv_db - vh_db  # In dB: difference = ratio

        # Save
        profile = src.profile
        profile.update(dtype=rasterio.float32, count=3)

        with rasterio.open(output_path, 'w', **profile) as dst:
            dst.write(vv_filtered.astype(np.float32), 1)
            dst.write(vh_filtered.astype(np.float32), 2)
            dst.write(ratio.astype(np.float32), 3)

# Usage
process_sentinel1_grd('S1A_IW_GRDH.tif', 'S1A_processed.tif')

SAR Polarimetric Indices

def calculate_sar_indices(vv, vh):
    """Calculate SAR-derived indices."""
    # Backscatter ratio in dB
    ratio_db = 10 * np.log10(vv / (vh + 1e-8) + 1e-8)

    # Radar Vegetation Index
    rvi = (4 * vh) / (vv + vh + 1e-8)

    # Soil Moisture Index (approximation)
    smi = vv / (vv + vh + 1e-8)

    return ratio_db, rvi, smi

Hyperspectral Imaging

Hyperspectral Data Processing

import spectral.io.envi as envi
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Load hyperspectral cube
hdr_path = 'hyperspectral.hdr'
img = envi.open(hdr_path)
data = img.load()

print(f"Data shape: {data.shape}")  # (rows, cols, bands)

# Extract spectral signature at a pixel
pixel_signature = data[100, 100, :]
plt.plot(img.bands.centers, pixel_signature)
plt.xlabel('Wavelength (nm)')
plt.ylabel('Reflectance')
plt.show()

# Spectral indices for hyperspectral
def calculate_ndi(hyper_data, band1_idx, band2_idx):
    """Normalized Difference Index for any two bands."""
    band1 = hyper_data[:, :, band1_idx]
    band2 = hyper_data[:, :, band2_idx]
    return (band1 - band2) / (band1 + band2 + 1e-8)

# Red Edge Position (REP)
def red_edge_position(hyper_data, wavelengths):
    """Calculate red edge position."""
    # Find wavelength of maximum slope in red-edge region (680-750nm)
    red_edge_idx = np.where((wavelengths >= 680) & (wavelengths <= 750))[0]

    first_derivative = np.diff(hyper_data, axis=2)
    rep_idx = np.argmax(first_derivative[:, :, red_edge_idx], axis=2)
    return wavelengths[red_edge_idx][rep_idx]

Image Preprocessing

Atmospheric Correction

# Using 6S (via Py6S)
from Py6S import *

# Create 6S instance
s = SixS()

# Set atmospheric conditions
s.atmos_profile = AtmosProfile.PredefinedType(AtmosProfile.MidlatitudeSummer)
s.aero_profile = AeroProfile.PredefinedType(AeroProfile.Continental)

# Set geometry
s.geometry = Geometry.User()
s.geometry.month = 6
s.geometry.day = 15
s.geometry.solar_z = 30
s.geometry.solar_a = 180

# Run simulation
s.run()

# Get correction coefficients
xa, xb, xc = s.outputs.coef_xa, s.outputs.coef_xb, s.outputs.coef_xc

def atmospheric_correction(dn, xa, xb, xc):
    """Apply 6S atmospheric correction."""
    y = xa * dn - xb
    y = y / (1 + xc * y)
    return y

Cloud Masking

def sentinel2_cloud_mask(s2_image):
    """Generate cloud mask for Sentinel-2."""
    # Simple cloud detection using spectral tests
    scl = s2_image.select('SCL')  # Scene Classification Layer

    # Cloud classes: 8=Cloud, 9=Cloud medium, 10=Cloud high
    cloud_mask = scl.gt(7).And(scl.lt(11))

    # Additional test: Brightness threshold
    brightness = s2_image.select(['B02','B03','B04','B08']).mean()

    return cloud_mask.Or(brightness.gt(0.4))

# Apply mask
def apply_mask(image):
    mask = sentinel2_cloud_mask(image)
    return image.updateMask(mask.Not())

Pan-Sharpening

import cv2
import numpy as np

def gram_schmidt_pansharpen(ms, pan):
    """Gram-Schmidt pan-sharpening."""
    # Multispectral: (H, W, bands)
    # Panchromatic: (H, W)

    # 1. Upsample MS to pan resolution
    ms_up = cv2.resize(ms, (pan.shape[1], pan.shape[0]),
                       interpolation=cv2.INTER_CUBIC)

    # 2. Simulate panchromatic from MS
    weights = np.array([0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25])  # Equal weights
    simulated = np.sum(ms_up * weights.reshape(1, 1, -1), axis=2)

    # 3. Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization
    # (Simplified version)
    for i in range(ms_up.shape[2]):
        band = ms_up[:, :, i].astype(float)
        mean_sim = np.mean(simulated)
        mean_band = np.mean(band)
        diff = band - mean_band
        sim_diff = simulated - mean_sim

        # Adjust
        ms_up[:, :, i] = band + diff * (pan - simulated) / (np.std(sim_diff) + 1e-8)

    return ms_up

For more code examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Scientific Domains

Scientific Domain Applications

Geospatial applications across scientific disciplines: marine, atmospheric, hydrology, and more.

Marine & Coastal GIS

Coastal Vulnerability Assessment

import geopandas as gpd
import rasterio
import numpy as np

def coastal_vulnerability_index(dem_path, shoreline_path, output_path):
    """Calculate coastal vulnerability index."""

    # 1. Load elevation
    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src:
        dem = src.read(1)
        transform = src.transform

    # 2. Distance to shoreline
    shoreline = gpd.read_file(shoreline_path)
    # ... calculate distance raster ...

    # 3. Vulnerability criteria (0-1 scale)
    elevation_vuln = 1 - np.clip(dem / 10, 0, 1)  # Lower = more vulnerable
    slope_vuln = 1 - np.clip(slope / 10, 0, 1)

    # 4. Weighted overlay
    weights = {
        'elevation': 0.3,
        'slope': 0.2,
        'distance_to_shore': 0.2,
        'wave_height': 0.2,
        'sea_level_trend': 0.1
    }

    cvi = sum(vuln * w for vuln, w in zip(
        [elevation_vuln, slope_vuln, distance_vuln, wave_vuln, slr_vuln],
        weights.values()
    ))

    return cvi

Marine Habitat Mapping

# Benthic habitat classification
def classify_benthic_habitat(bathymetry, backscatter, derived_layers):
    """
    Classify benthic habitat using:
    - Bathymetry (depth)
    - Backscatter intensity
    - Derived terrain features
    """

    # 1. Extract features
    features = {
        'depth': bathymetry,
        'backscatter': backscatter,
        'slope': calculate_slope(bathymetry),
        'rugosity': calculate_rugosity(bathymetry),
        'curvature': calculate_curvature(bathymetry)
    }

    # 2. Classification rules
    habitat_classes = {}

    # Coral reef: shallow, high rugosity, moderate backscatter
    coral_mask = (
        (features['depth'] > -30) &
        (features['depth'] < -5) &
        (features['rugosity'] > 2) &
        (features['backscatter'] > -15)
    )
    habitat_classes[coral_mask] = 1  # Coral

    # Seagrass: very shallow, low backscatter
    seagrass_mask = (
        (features['depth'] > -15) &
        (features['depth'] < -2) &
        (features['backscatter'] < -20)
    )
    habitat_classes[seagrass_mask] = 2  # Seagrass

    # Sandy bottom: low rugosity
    sand_mask = (
        (features['rugosity'] < 1.5) &
        (features['slope'] < 5)
    )
    habitat_classes[sand_mask] = 3  # Sand

    return habitat_classes

Atmospheric Science

Weather Data Processing

import xarray as xr
import rioxarray

# Open NetCDF weather data
ds = xr.open_dataset('era5_data.nc')

# Select variable and time
temperature = ds.t2m  # 2m temperature
precipitation = ds.tp  # Total precipitation

# Spatial subsetting
roi = ds.sel(latitude=slice(20, 30), longitude=slice(65, 75))

# Temporal aggregation
monthly = roi.resample(time='1M').mean()
daily = roi.resample(time='1D').sum()

# Export to GeoTIFF
temperature.rio.to_raster('temperature.tif')

# Calculate climate indices
def calculate_spi(precip, scale=3):
    """Standardized Precipitation Index."""
    # Fit gamma distribution
    from scipy import stats
    # ... SPI calculation ...
    return spi

Air Quality Analysis

# PM2.5 interpolation
def interpolate_pm25(sensor_gdf, grid_resolution=1000):
    """
    Interpolate PM2.5 from sensor network.
    Uses IDW or Kriging.
    """
    from pykrige.ok import OrdinaryKriging
    import numpy as np

    # Extract coordinates and values
    lon = sensor_gdf.geometry.x.values
    lat = sensor_gdf.geometry.y.values
    values = sensor_gdf['PM25'].values

    # Create grid
    grid_lon = np.arange(lon.min(), lon.max(), grid_resolution)
    grid_lat = np.arange(lat.min(), lat.max(), grid_resolution)

    # Ordinary Kriging
    OK = OrdinaryKriging(lon, lat, values,
                        variogram_model='exponential',
                        verbose=False,
                        enable_plotting=False)

    # Interpolate
    z, ss = OK.execute('grid', grid_lon, grid_lat)

    return z, grid_lon, grid_lat

Hydrology

Watershed Delineation

import rasterio
import numpy as np
from scipy import ndimage

def delineate_watershed(dem_path, outlet_point):
    """
    Delineate watershed from DEM and outlet point.
    """

    # 1. Load DEM
    with rasterio.open(dem_path) as src:
        dem = src.read(1)
        transform = src.transform

    # 2. Fill sinks
    filled = fill_sinks(dem)

    # 3. Calculate flow direction (D8 method)
    flow_dir = calculate_flow_direction_d8(filled)

    # 4. Calculate flow accumulation
    flow_acc = calculate_flow_accumulation(flow_dir)

    # 5. Delineate watershed
    # Convert outlet point to raster coordinates
    row, col = ~transform * (outlet_point.x, outlet_point.y)
    row, col = int(row), int(col)

    # Trace upstream
    watershed = trace_upstream(flow_dir, row, col)

    return watershed, flow_acc, flow_dir

def calculate_flow_direction_d8(dem):
    """D8 flow direction algorithm."""
    # Encode direction as powers of 2
    # 32 64 128
    # 16  0   1
    # 8   4   2

    rows, cols = dem.shape
    flow_dir = np.zeros_like(dem, dtype=np.uint8)

    directions = [
        (-1, 0, 64), (-1, 1, 128), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2),
        (1, 0, 4), (1, -1, 8), (0, -1, 16), (-1, -1, 32)
    ]

    for i in range(1, rows - 1):
        for j in range(1, cols - 1):
            max_drop = -np.inf
            steepest_dir = 0

            for di, dj, code in directions:
                ni, nj = i + di, j + dj
                drop = dem[i, j] - dem[ni, nj]

                if drop > max_drop and drop > 0:
                    max_drop = drop
                    steepest_dir = code

            flow_dir[i, j] = steepest_dir

    return flow_dir

Flood Inundation Modeling

def flood_inundation(dem, flood_level, roughness=0.03):
    """
    Simple flood inundation modeling.
    """

    # 1. Identify flooded cells
    flooded_mask = dem < flood_level

    # 2. Calculate flood depth
    flood_depth = np.where(flood_mask, flood_level - dem, 0)

    # 3. Remove isolated pixels (connected components)
    labeled, num_features = ndimage.label(flooded_mask)

    # Keep only large components (lakes, not pixels)
    component_sizes = np.bincount(labeled.ravel())
    large_components = component_sizes > 100  # Threshold

    mask_indices = large_components[labeled]
    final_flooded = flooded_mask & mask_indices

    # 4. Flood extent area
    cell_area = 30 * 30  # Assuming 30m resolution
    flooded_area = np.sum(final_flooded) * cell_area

    return flood_depth, final_flooded, flooded_area

Agriculture

Crop Condition Monitoring

def crop_condition_indices(ndvi_time_series):
    """
    Monitor crop condition using NDVI time series.
    """

    # 1. Calculate growing season metrics
    max_ndvi = np.max(ndvi_time_series)
    time_to_peak = np.argmax(ndvi_time_series)

    # 2. Compare to historical baseline
    baseline_max = 0.8  # From historical data
    condition = (max_ndvi / baseline_max) * 100

    # 3. Classify condition
    if condition > 90:
        status = "Excellent"
    elif condition > 75:
        status = "Good"
    elif condition > 60:
        status = "Fair"
    else:
        status = "Poor"

    # 4. Estimate yield (simplified)
    yield_potential = condition * 0.5  # tonnes/ha

    return {
        'condition': condition,
        'status': status,
        'yield_potential': yield_potential
    }

Precision Agriculture

def prescription_map(soil_data, yield_data, nutrient_data):
    """
    Generate variable rate prescription map.
    """

    # 1. Grid analysis
    # Divide field into management zones
    from sklearn.cluster import KMeans

    features = np.column_stack([
        soil_data['organic_matter'],
        soil_data['ph'],
        yield_data['yield_t'],
        nutrient_data['nitrogen']
    ])

    # Cluster into 3-4 zones
    kmeans = KMeans(n_clusters=3, random_state=42)
    zones = kmeans.fit_predict(features)

    # 2. Prescription rates per zone
    prescriptions = {}
    for zone_id in range(3):
        zone_mask = zones == zone_id
        avg_yield = np.mean(yield_data['yield_t'][zone_mask])

        # Higher yield areas = higher nutrient requirement
        nitrogen_rate = avg_yield * 0.02  # kg N per kg yield
        prescriptions[zone_id] = {
            'nitrogen': nitrogen_rate,
            'phosphorus': nitrogen_rate * 0.3,
            'potassium': nitrogen_rate * 0.4
        }

    return zones, prescriptions

Forestry

Forest Inventory Analysis

def estimate_biomass_from_lidar(chm_path, plot_data):
    """
    Estimate above-ground biomass from LiDAR CHM.
    """

    # 1. Load Canopy Height Model
    with rasterio.open(chm_path) as src:
        chm = src.read(1)

    # 2. Extract metrics per plot
    metrics = {}
    for plot_id, geom in plot_data.geometry.items():
        # Extract CHM values for plot
        # ... (mask and extract)

        plot_metrics = {
            'height_max': np.max(plot_chm),
            'height_mean': np.mean(plot_chm),
            'height_std': np.std(plot_chm),
            'height_p95': np.percentile(plot_chm, 95),
            'canopy_cover': np.sum(plot_chm > 2) / plot_chm.size
        }

        # 3. Allometric equation for biomass
        # Biomass = a * (height^b) * (cover^c)
        biomass = 0.2 * (plot_metrics['height_mean'] ** 1.5) * \
                  (plot_metrics['canopy_cover'] ** 0.8)

        metrics[plot_id] = {
            **plot_metrics,
            'biomass_tonnes': biomass
        }

    return metrics

Deforestation Detection

def detect_deforestation(image1_path, image2_path, threshold=0.3):
    """
    Detect deforestation between two dates.
    """

    # 1. Load NDVI images
    with rasterio.open(image1_path) as src:
        ndvi1 = src.read(1)
    with rasterio.open(image2_path) as src:
        ndvi2 = src.read(1)

    # 2. Calculate NDVI difference
    ndvi_diff = ndvi2 - ndvi1

    # 3. Detect deforestation (significant NDVI decrease)
    deforestation = ndvi_diff < -threshold

    # 4. Remove small patches
    deforestation_cleaned = remove_small_objects(deforestation, min_size=100)

    # 5. Calculate area
    pixel_area = 900  # m2 (30m resolution)
    deforested_area = np.sum(deforestation_cleaned) * pixel_area

    return deforestation_cleaned, deforested_area

For more domain-specific examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Specialized Topics

Specialized Topics

Advanced specialized topics: geostatistics, optimization, ethics, and best practices.

Geostatistics

Variogram Analysis

import numpy as np
from scipy.spatial.distance import pdist, squareform
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

def empirical_variogram(points, values, max_lag=None, n_lags=15):
    """
    Calculate empirical variogram.
    """
    n = len(points)

    # Distance matrix
    dist_matrix = squareform(pdist(points))

    if max_lag is None:
        max_lag = np.max(dist_matrix) / 2

    # Calculate semivariance
    semivariance = []
    mean_distances = []

    for lag in np.linspace(0, max_lag, n_lags):
        # Pair selection
        mask = (dist_matrix >= lag) & (dist_matrix < lag + max_lag/n_lags)

        if np.sum(mask) == 0:
            continue

        # Semivariance: (1/2n) * sum(z_i - z_j)^2
        diff_squared = (values[:, None] - values) ** 2
        gamma = 0.5 * np.mean(diff_squared[mask])

        semivariance.append(gamma)
        mean_distances.append(lag + max_lag/(2*n_lags))

    return np.array(mean_distances), np.array(semivariance)

# Fit variogram model
def fit_variogram_model(lags, gammas, model='spherical'):
    """
    Fit theoretical variogram model.
    """
    from scipy.optimize import curve_fit

    def spherical(h, nugget, sill, range_):
        """Spherical model."""
        h = np.asarray(h)
        gamma = np.where(h < range_,
                        nugget + sill * (1.5 * h/range_ - 0.5 * (h/range_)**3),
                        nugget + sill)
        return gamma

    def exponential(h, nugget, sill, range_):
        """Exponential model."""
        return nugget + sill * (1 - np.exp(-3 * h / range_))

    def gaussian(h, nugget, sill, range_):
        """Gaussian model."""
        return nugget + sill * (1 - np.exp(-3 * (h/range_)**2))

    models = {
        'spherical': spherical,
        'exponential': exponential,
        'gaussian': gaussian
    }

    # Fit model
    popt, _ = curve_fit(models[model], lags, gammas,
                        p0=[np.min(gammas), np.max(gammas), np.max(lags)/2],
                        bounds=(0, np.inf))

    return popt, models[model]

Kriging Interpolation

from pykrige.ok import OrdinaryKriging
import numpy as np

def ordinary_kriging(x, y, z, grid_resolution=100):
    """
    Perform ordinary kriging interpolation.
    """
    # Create grid
    gridx = np.linspace(x.min(), x.max(), grid_resolution)
    gridy = np.linspace(y.min(), y.max(), grid_resolution)

    # Fit variogram
    OK = OrdinaryKriging(
        x, y, z,
        variogram_model='spherical',
        verbose=False,
        enable_plotting=False,
        coordinates_type='euclidean',
    )

    # Interpolate
    zinterp, sigmasq = OK.execute('grid', gridx, gridy)

    return zinterp, sigmasq, gridx, gridy

# Cross-validation
def kriging_cross_validation(x, y, z, n_folds=5):
    """
    Perform k-fold cross-validation for kriging.
    """
    from sklearn.model_selection import KFold

    kf = KFold(n_splits=n_folds)
    errors = []

    for train_idx, test_idx in kf.split(z):
        # Train
        OK = OrdinaryKriging(
            x[train_idx], y[train_idx], z[train_idx],
            variogram_model='spherical',
            verbose=False
        )

        # Predict at test locations
        predictions, _ = OK.execute('points',
                                    x[test_idx], y[test_idx])

        # Calculate error
        rmse = np.sqrt(np.mean((predictions - z[test_idx])**2))
        errors.append(rmse)

    return np.mean(errors), np.std(errors)

Spatial Optimization

Location-Allocation Problem

from scipy.optimize import minimize
import numpy as np

def facility_location(demand_points, n_facilities=5):
    """
    Solve p-median facility location problem.
    """

    n_demand = len(demand_points)

    # Distance matrix
    dist_matrix = np.zeros((n_demand, n_demand))
    for i, p1 in enumerate(demand_points):
        for j, p2 in enumerate(demand_points):
            dist_matrix[i, j] = np.sqrt((p1[0]-p2[0])**2 + (p1[1]-p2[1])**2)

    # Decision variables: which demand points get facilities
    def objective(x):
        """Minimize total weighted distance."""
        # x is binary array of facility locations
        facility_indices = np.where(x > 0.5)[0]

        # Assign each demand to nearest facility
        total_distance = 0
        for i in range(n_demand):
            min_dist = np.min([dist_matrix[i, f] for f in facility_indices])
            total_distance += min_dist

        return total_distance

    # Constraints: exactly n_facilities
    constraints = {'type': 'eq', 'fun': lambda x: np.sum(x) - n_facilities}

    # Bounds: binary
    bounds = [(0, 1)] * n_demand

    # Initial guess: random locations
    x0 = np.zeros(n_demand)
    x0[:n_facilities] = 1

    # Solve
    result = minimize(
        objective, x0,
        method='SLSQP',
        bounds=bounds,
        constraints=constraints
    )

    facility_indices = np.where(result.x > 0.5)[0]
    return demand_points[facility_indices]

Routing Optimization

import networkx as nx

def traveling_salesman(G, start_node):
    """
    Solve TSP using heuristic.
    """
    unvisited = set(G.nodes())
    unvisited.remove(start_node)

    route = [start_node]
    current = start_node

    while unvisited:
        # Find nearest unvisited node
        nearest = min(unvisited,
                     key=lambda n: G[current][n].get('weight', 1))
        route.append(nearest)
        unvisited.remove(nearest)
        current = nearest

    # Return to start
    route.append(start_node)

    return route

# Vehicle Routing Problem
def vehicle_routing(G, depot, customers, n_vehicles=3, capacity=100):
    """
    Solve VRP using heuristic (cluster-first, route-second).
    """
    from sklearn.cluster import KMeans

    # 1. Cluster customers
    coords = np.array([[G.nodes[n]['x'], G.nodes[n]['y']] for n in customers])
    kmeans = KMeans(n_clusters=n_vehicles, random_state=42)
    labels = kmeans.fit_predict(coords)

    # 2. Route each cluster
    routes = []
    for i in range(n_vehicles):
        cluster_customers = [customers[j] for j in range(len(customers)) if labels[j] == i]
        route = traveling_salesman(G.subgraph(cluster_customers + [depot]), depot)
        routes.append(route)

    return routes

Ethics and Privacy

Privacy-Preserving Geospatial Analysis

# Differential privacy for spatial data
def add_dp_noise(locations, epsilon=1.0, radius=100):
    """
    Add differential privacy noise to locations.
    """
    import numpy as np

    noisy_locations = []
    for lon, lat in locations:
        # Calculate noise (Laplace mechanism)
        sensitivity = radius
        scale = sensitivity / epsilon

        noise_lon = np.random.laplace(0, scale)
        noise_lat = np.random.laplace(0, scale)

        noisy_locations.append((lon + noise_lon, lat + noise_lat))

    return noisy_locations

# K-anonymity for trajectory data
def k_anonymize_trajectory(trajectory, k=5):
    """
    Apply k-anonymity to trajectory.
    """
    # 1. Divide into segments
    # 2. Find k-1 similar trajectories
    # 3. Replace segment with generalization

    # Simplified: spatial generalization
    from shapely.geometry import LineString

    simplified = LineString(trajectory).simplify(0.01)
    return list(simplified.coords)

Data Provenance

# Track geospatial data lineage
class DataLineage:
    def __init__(self):
        self.history = []

    def record_transformation(self, input_data, operation, output_data, params):
        """Record data transformation."""
        record = {
            'timestamp': pd.Timestamp.now(),
            'input': input_data,
            'operation': operation,
            'output': output_data,
            'parameters': params
        }
        self.history.append(record)

    def get_lineage(self, data_id):
        """Get complete lineage for a dataset."""
        lineage = []
        for record in reversed(self.history):
            if record['output'] == data_id:
                lineage.append(record)
                lineage.extend(self.get_lineage(record['input']))
        return lineage

Best Practices

Reproducible Research

# Use environment.yml for dependencies
# environment.yml:
"""
name: geomaster
dependencies:
  - python=3.11
  - geopandas
  - rasterio
  - scikit-learn
  - pip
  - pip:
    - torchgeo
"""

# Capture session info
def capture_environment():
    """Capture software and data versions."""
    import platform
    import geopandas as gpd
    import rasterio
    import numpy as np
    import pandas as pd

    info = {
        'os': platform.platform(),
        'python': platform.python_version(),
        'geopandas': gpd.__version__,
        'rasterio': rasterio.__version__,
        'numpy': np.__version__,
        'pandas': pd.__version__,
        'timestamp': pd.Timestamp.now()
    }

    return info

# Save with output
import json
with open('processing_info.json', 'w') as f:
    json.dump(capture_environment(), f, indent=2, default=str)

Code Organization

# Project structure
"""
project/
├── data/
│   ├── raw/
│   ├── processed/
│   └── external/
├── notebooks/
├── src/
│   ├── __init__.py
│   ├── data_loading.py
│   ├── preprocessing.py
│   ├── analysis.py
│   └── visualization.py
├── tests/
├── config.yaml
└── README.md
"""

# Configuration management
import yaml

with open('config.yaml') as f:
    config = yaml.safe_load(f)

# Access parameters
crs = config['projection']['output_crs']
resolution = config['data']['resolution']

Performance Optimization

# Memory profiling
import memory_profiler

@memory_profiler.profile
def process_large_dataset(data_path):
    """Profile memory usage."""
    data = load_data(data_path)
    result = process(data)
    return result

# Vectorization vs loops
# BAD: Iterating rows
for idx, row in gdf.iterrows():
    gdf.loc[idx, 'buffer'] = row.geometry.buffer(100)

# GOOD: Vectorized
gdf['buffer'] = gdf.geometry.buffer(100)

# Chunked processing
def process_in_chunks(gdf, func, chunk_size=1000):
    """Process GeoDataFrame in chunks."""
    results = []
    for i in range(0, len(gdf), chunk_size):
        chunk = gdf.iloc[i:i+chunk_size]
        result = func(chunk)
        results.append(result)
    return pd.concat(results)

For more code examples, see code-examples.md.

Reference: Troubleshooting

GeoMaster Troubleshooting Guide

Solutions to common geospatial problems and debugging strategies.

Installation Issues

GDAL Installation Problems

# Problem: "gdal-config not found" or rasterio install fails

# Solution 1: Use conda (recommended)
conda install -c conda-forge gdal rasterio

# Solution 2: System packages (Ubuntu/Debian)
sudo apt-get install gdal-bin libgdal-dev
export CPLUS_INCLUDE_PATH=/usr/include/gdal
export C_INCLUDE_PATH=/usr/include/gdal
pip install rasterio

# Solution 3: Wheel files
pip install rasterio --find-links=https://gis.wheelwrights.com/

# Verify installation
python -c "from osgeo import gdal; print(gdal.__version__)"
python -c "import rasterio; print(rasterio.__version__)"

Python Binding Issues

# Problem: "DLL load failed" on Windows
# Solution: Reinstall with conda
conda install -c conda-forge --force-reinstall gdal rasterio fiona

# Problem: "Symbol not found" on macOS
# Solution: Rebuild from source or use conda
brew install gdal
pip install rasterio --no-binary rasterio

# Problem: GEOS errors
brew install geos
pip install shapely --no-binary shapely

Runtime Errors

CRS Transformation Errors

# Problem: "Invalid projection" or "CRS mismatch"
import geopandas as gpd

# Check CRS
print(f"CRS: {gdf.crs}")

# If None, set it
if gdf.crs is None:
    gdf.set_crs("EPSG:4326", inplace=True)

# If unknown, try to detect
gdf = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())

Memory Errors with Large Rasters

# Problem: "MemoryError" when reading large files
# Solution: Read in chunks or use windows

import rasterio
from rasterio.windows import Window

# Windowed reading
with rasterio.open('large.tif') as src:
    window = Window(0, 0, 1000, 1000)  # (col_off, row_off, width, height)
    subset = src.read(1, window=window)

# Block-by-block processing
with rasterio.open('large.tif') as src:
    for i, window in src.block_windows(1):
        block = src.read(1, window=window)
        # Process block...

# Use Dask for very large files
import dask.array as da
dask_array = da.from_rasterio('large.tif', chunks=(1, 1024, 1024))

Geometry Validation Errors

# Problem: "TopologyException" or "Self-intersection"
import geopandas as gpd
from shapely.validation import make_valid

# Check invalid geometries
invalid = gdf[~gdf.is_valid]
print(f"Invalid geometries: {len(invalid)}")

# Fix invalid geometries
gdf['geometry'] = gdf.geometry.make_valid()

# Buffer with 0 to fix (alternative method)
gdf['geometry'] = gdf.geometry.buffer(0)

Coordinate Order Confusion

# Problem: Points in wrong location (lon/lat swapped)
from pyproj import Transformer

# Common mistake: lon, lat vs lat, lon
# Always specify axis order
transformer = Transformer.from_crs(
    "EPSG:4326",
    "EPSG:32610",
    always_xy=True  # Input: x=lon, y=lat (not y=lat, x=lon)
)

# Correct usage
x, y = transformer.transform(lon, lat)  # not lat, lon

Performance Issues

Slow Spatial Joins

# Problem: sjoin takes too long
import geopandas as gpd

# Solution: Use spatial index
gdf1.sindex  # Auto-created
gdf2.sindex

# For nearest neighbor joins, use specialized function
result = gpd.sjoin_nearest(gdf1, gdf2, max_distance=1000)

# Use intersection predicate (faster than 'intersects' for points)
result = gpd.sjoin(points, polygons, predicate='within')

# Clip to bounding box first
bbox = gdf1.total_bounds
gdf2_clipped = gdf2.cx[bbox[0]:bbox[2], bbox[1]:bbox[3]]
result = gpd.sjoin(gdf1, gdf2_clipped, predicate='intersects')

Slow Raster I/O

# Problem: Reading/writing rasters is slow
import rasterio

# Solution 1: Use compression when writing
profile.update(
    compress='DEFLATE',
    predictor=2,
    zlevel=4
)

# Solution 2: Use tiled output
profile.update(
    tiled=True,
    blockxsize=256,
    blockysize=256
)

# Solution 3: Enable caching
from osgeo import gdal
gdal.SetCacheMax(2**30)  # 1GB

# Solution 4: Use COG format for cloud access
from rio_cogeo.cogeo import cog_translate
cog_translate('input.tif', 'output.tif', profile)

Slow Reprojection

# Problem: to_crs() is very slow
import geopandas as gpd

# Solution 1: Simplify geometry first
gdf_simple = gdf.geometry.simplify(tolerance=0.0001)
gdf_reproj = gdf_simple.to_crs(target_crs)

# Solution 2: Use lower precision for display
gdf_reproj = gdf.to_crs(target_crs, geometry_precision=2)

# Solution 3: Reproject in parallel
import multiprocessing as mp
from functools import partial

def reproj_chunk(chunk, target_crs):
    return chunk.to_crs(target_crs)

chunks = np.array_split(gdf, mp.cpu_count())
with mp.Pool() as pool:
    results = pool.map(partial(reproj_chunk, target_crs=target_crs), chunks)
gdf_reproj = gpd.GeoDataFrame(pd.concat(results))

Common Pitfalls

Area in Degrees

# WRONG: Area in square degrees
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')
area = gdf.geometry.area  # Wrong!

# CORRECT: Use projected CRS
gdf_proj = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())
area_sqm = gdf_proj.geometry.area
area_sqkm = area_sqm / 1_000_000

Buffer in Geographic CRS

# WRONG: Buffer of 1000 degrees
gdf['buffer'] = gdf.geometry.buffer(1000)

# CORRECT: Project first
gdf_proj = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:32610")
gdf_proj['buffer_km'] = gdf_proj.geometry.buffer(1000)  # 1000 meters

Web Mercator Distortion

# WRONG: Area calculation in Web Mercator
gdf = gdf.to_crs("EPSG:3857")
area = gdf.geometry.area  # Significant distortion!

# CORRECT: Use appropriate projection
gdf = gdf.to_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs())
area = gdf.geometry.area  # Accurate

Mixing CRS

# WRONG: Spatial join without checking CRS
result = gpd.sjoin(gdf1, gdf2, predicate='intersects')

# CORRECT: Ensure same CRS
if gdf1.crs != gdf2.crs:
    gdf2 = gdf2.to_crs(gdf1.crs)
result = gpd.sjoin(gdf1, gdf2, predicate='intersects')

Data Issues

Missing/Missing CRS

# Problem: CRS is None
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')
if gdf.crs is None:
    # Try to detect from data extent
    lon_min, lat_min, lon_max, lat_max = gdf.total_bounds

    if -180 <= lon_min <= 180 and -90 <= lat_min <= 90:
        gdf.set_crs("EPSG:4326", inplace=True)
        print("Assumed WGS 84 (EPSG:4326)")
    else:
        gdf.set_crs(gdf.estimate_utm_crs(), inplace=True)
        print("Estimated UTM zone")

Invalid Coordinates

# Problem: Coordinates out of valid range
gdf = gpd.read_file('data.geojson')

# Check for invalid coordinates
invalid_lon = (gdf.geometry.x < -180) | (gdf.geometry.x > 180)
invalid_lat = (gdf.geometry.y < -90) | (gdf.geometry.y > 90)

if invalid_lon.any() or invalid_lat.any():
    print("Warning: Invalid coordinates found")
    gdf = gdf[~invalid_lon & ~invalid_lat]

Empty Geometries

# Problem: Processing fails with empty geometries
# Remove empty geometries
gdf = gdf[~gdf.geometry.is_empty]

# Or fill with None
gdf.loc[gdf.geometry.is_empty, 'geometry'] = None

# Check before operations
if gdf.geometry.is_empty.any():
    print(f"Warning: {gdf.geometry.is_empty.sum()} empty geometries")

Remote Sensing Issues

Sentinel-2 Band Ordering

# Problem: Wrong band indices
# Sentinel-2 L2A SAFE structure:
# B01 (60m), B02 (10m), B03 (10m), B04 (10m), B05 (20m),
# B06 (20m), B07 (20m), B08 (10m), B08A (20m), B09 (60m),
# B11 (20m), B12 (20m)

# Sentinel-2 (resampled to 10m):
# B02=1, B03=2, B04=3, B05=4, B06=5, B07=6, B08=7, B8A=8, B11=9, B12=10

# For 10m bands only:
blue = src.read(1)   # B02
green = src.read(2)  # B03
red = src.read(3)    # B04
nir = src.read(4)    # B08

Cloud Shadow Masking

# Problem: Clouds and shadows not properly masked
def improved_cloud_mask(scl):
    """
    Improved cloud masking using SCL layer.
    Classes: 0=No data, 1=Saturated, 2=Dark, 3=Cloud shadow,
    4=Vegetation, 5=Bare soil, 6=Water, 7=Cloud low prob,
    8=Cloud med prob, 9=Cloud high prob, 10=Thin cirrus
    """
    # Mask: clouds, cloud shadows, saturated
    mask = scl.isin([0, 1, 3, 8, 9, 10])
    return mask

# Apply
scl = s2_image.select('SCL')
cloud_mask = improved_cloud_mask(scl)
image_clean = s2_image.updateMask(cloud_mask.Not())

Error Messages Reference

ErrorCauseSolution
CRS mismatchDifferent coordinate systemsgdf2 = gdf2.to_crs(gdf1.crs)
TopologyExceptionInvalid/self-intersecting geometrygdf.geometry = gdf.geometry.make_valid()
MemoryErrorLarge datasetUse Dask or chunked reading
Invalid projectionUnknown CRS codeCheck EPSG code, use CRS.from_user_input()
Empty geometryNull geometriesgdf = gdf[~gdf.geometry.is_empty]
Bounds errorCoordinates out of rangeFilter invalid coordinates
DLL load failedGDAL not installedUse conda: conda install gdal
Symbol not foundLibrary linking issueReinstall with binary wheels or conda
Self-intersectionInvalid polygonBuffer(0) or make_valid()

Debugging Strategies

1. Check Data Integrity

def check_geodataframe(gdf):
    """Comprehensive GeoDataFrame health check."""
    print(f"Shape: {gdf.shape}")
    print(f"CRS: {gdf.crs}")
    print(f"Bounds: {gdf.total_bounds}")
    print(f"Invalid geometries: {(~gdf.is_valid).sum()}")
    print(f"Empty geometries: {gdf.geometry.is_empty.sum()}")
    print(f"None geometries: {gdf.geometry.isna().sum()}")
    print(f"Duplicate geometries: {gdf.geometry.duplicated().sum()}")
    print("\nGeometry types:")
    print(gdf.geometry.type.value_counts())
    print("\nCoordinate range:")
    print(f"  X: {gdf.geometry.x.min():.2f} to {gdf.geometry.x.max():.2f}")
    print(f"  Y: {gdf.geometry.y.min():.2f} to {gdf.geometry.y.max():.2f}")

check_geodataframe(gdf)

2. Test Transformations

def test_reprojection(gdf, target_crs):
    """Test if reprojection is reversible."""
    original = gdf.copy()
    gdf_proj = gdf.to_crs(target_crs)
    gdf_back = gdf_proj.to_crs(gdf.crs)

    diff = original.geometry.distance(gdf_back.geometry).max()
    if diff > 1:  # More than 1 meter
        print(f"Warning: Max error: {diff:.2f}m")
        return False
    return True

3. Profile Code

import time

def time_operation(func, *args, **kwargs):
    """Time a geospatial operation."""
    start = time.time()
    result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    elapsed = time.time() - start
    print(f"{func.__name__}: {elapsed:.2f}s")
    return result

# Usage
time_operation(gdf.to_crs, "EPSG:32610")

Getting Help

Check Versions

import sys
import geopandas as gpd
import rasterio
from osgeo import gdal

print(f"Python: {sys.version}")
print(f"GeoPandas: {gpd.__version__}")
print(f"Rasterio: {rasterio.__version__}")
print(f"GDAL: {gdal.__version__}")
print(f"PROJ: {gdal.VersionInfo('PROJ')}")

Useful Resources

#geomaster

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